4. The Age of
Industrialisation
Concept 1: Industrialisation
as a Symbol of Progress
Introduction
- At the beginning of the 20th century,
industrialisation was widely viewed as a sign of progress and
development.
- Machines, factories, railways and technology were
considered symbols of a modern society.
Example: "Dawn of the
Century" (1900)
- Published by E.T. Paull.
- Featured the Angel of Progress carrying
the flag of the new century.
- The angel stood on a winged wheel representing
time and movement towards the future.
Symbols of Progress Shown
- Railway
- Camera
- Machines
- Printing press
- Factory
Significance
- These symbols reflected people's belief that
technology would create a better future.
Concept
2: Aladdin and the Modern Mechanic
Description
A trade magazine published a
picture showing two magicians:
Aladdin
- Represented the East (Orient).
- Symbolised the past, tradition and mystery.
- Built a palace using a magic lamp.
Modern Mechanic
- Represented the West and modernity.
- Used science and technology to create:
- Bridges
- Ships
- Towers
- High-rise buildings
Comparison
|
Aladdin |
Modern Mechanic |
|
East |
West |
|
Past |
Future |
|
Magic |
Technology |
|
Tradition |
Modernity |
Significance
- Showed the growing belief that technology was
replacing traditional methods.
Concept
3: Popular View of the Modern World
Main Idea
People increasingly associated
the modern world with:
- Technological innovation
- Machines
- Factories
- Railways
- Steamships
- Industrial growth
Result
Industrialisation came to be
seen simply as a story of:
- Development
- Prosperity
- Scientific advancement
Significance
- Created a positive image of industrialisation
in public imagination.
Concept
4: Questions About Industrialisation
Important Historical Questions
Historians began asking:
- Is industrialisation always based on
technological progress?
- Should all work be mechanised?
- Did industrialisation improve everyone's life?
- What were its social effects on workers and
society?
Importance
- These questions encourage a deeper
understanding of industrialisation.
- They show that industrialisation had both positive
and negative impacts.
Concept
5: Need to Study the History of Industrialisation
Why Study History?
To understand:
- How industrialisation actually developed.
- Its impact on workers and society.
- The benefits and problems created by
industrial growth.
Focus of the Chapter
Britain
- First industrial nation in the world.
- Birthplace of the Industrial Revolution.
India
- Industrial development occurred under British
colonial rule.
- Colonial policies influenced industrial
growth.
Significance
- Comparing Britain and India helps understand
different patterns of industrialisation.
Important
Definitions
Orient
- Regions east of the Mediterranean, mainly
Asia.
- Viewed by Western writers as traditional and
mysterious.
Industrialisation
- The process of developing industries through
the use of machines, factories and technology.
Modernity
- A condition associated with scientific
progress, industrial growth and technological advancement.
1. Before the Industrial Revolution
Meaning
·
Industrialisation
did not begin with factories.
·
Even
before factories, there was large-scale production for international markets.
·
Historians
call this early stage Proto-Industrialisation.
Key Features of
Proto-Industrialisation
·
Existed
during the 17th and
18th centuries.
·
Production
was carried out in villages and homes.
·
Goods
were produced for export and international trade.
·
Merchants
controlled production.
·
Factories
did not exist yet.
Why Did Proto-Industrialisation
Develop?
Growth
of Trade
·
Expansion
of world trade increased demand for goods.
·
European
countries acquired colonies, creating larger markets.
Restrictions
in Towns
·
Urban
guilds controlled production and trade.
·
New
merchants found it difficult to start businesses in towns.
Significance
·
Proto-industrialisation
laid the foundation for the Industrial Revolution.
1.0.1 Trade Guilds and Their Role
Meaning
Trade guilds were associations of
craftsmen and producers.
Functions
·
Trained
artisans.
·
Controlled
production.
·
Fixed
prices.
·
Regulated
competition.
·
Restricted
entry into trades.
Monopoly Rights
·
Rulers
gave guilds exclusive rights to produce certain goods.
Impact
·
Merchants
could not expand production in towns.
·
They
shifted production to rural areas.
1.0.2 Why Peasants Joined
Proto-Industrial Production
Background
·
Open
fields disappeared due to enclosure.
·
Common
lands were enclosed.
·
Peasants
lost traditional sources of livelihood.
Problems Faced by Peasants
·
Small
landholdings.
·
Lack
of sufficient agricultural income.
·
Growing
poverty.
Why They Accepted Merchant Work
·
Merchants
provided advances (money).
·
Additional
source of income.
·
Allowed
peasants to remain in villages.
Benefits
·
Supplemented
agricultural income.
·
Utilised
family labour efficiently.
1.0.3 Relationship Between Town and
Countryside
Structure of Production
Merchants
·
Lived
in towns.
·
Controlled
production and marketing.
Rural
Workers
·
Produced
goods at home.
Production Chain
1.
Wool
Stapler supplied wool.
2.
Spinners
produced yarn.
3.
Weavers
made cloth.
4.
Fullers
processed cloth.
5.
Dyers
coloured cloth.
6.
Finishing
done in London.
7.
Export
merchants sold goods abroad.
Importance of London
·
Became
a major finishing centre.
Significance
·
Created
economic links between towns and villages.
1.0.4 Features of the
Proto-Industrial System
Characteristics
·
Merchant-controlled
production.
·
Home-based
manufacturing.
·
Family
labour used extensively.
·
Goods
produced for international markets.
·
No
factory system.
Workforce
·
Each
merchant employed 20–25 workers at every stage.
·
One
merchant could indirectly control hundreds of workers.
1.1 The Coming Up of the Factory
Beginning of Factories
Early Growth
·
First
factories appeared in England during the 1730s.
·
Rapid
expansion occurred in the late 18th century.
Importance
·
Marked
the beginning of factory-based industrial production.
1.1.1 Growth of the Cotton Industry
Cotton as the First Major Industry
·
Cotton
became the symbol of the new industrial age.
Growth Statistics
·
1760:
Britain imported 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton.
·
1787:
Imports increased to 22 million pounds.
Reason for Growth
·
Rising
demand for cotton textiles.
·
Technological
improvements.
1.1.2 Technological Innovations
Important Improvements
Machines improved:
·
Carding
·
Twisting
·
Spinning
·
Rolling
Effects
·
Increased
productivity.
·
Produced
stronger yarn.
·
Reduced
production time.
Significance
·
Made
large-scale production possible.
1.1.3 Richard Arkwright and the
Cotton Mill
Contribution
·
Richard
Arkwright created the cotton mill.
Changes Introduced
Before:
·
Production
scattered in village homes.
After:
·
Production
concentrated in mills.
Advantages of Mills
·
Better
supervision.
·
Quality
control.
·
Labour
management.
·
All
processes under one roof.
Significance
·
Revolutionised
textile production.
1.1.4 Factories Become Popular
Early 19th Century
·
Factories
spread across England.
·
Large
mills became symbols of industrial progress.
Public Reaction
·
People
were fascinated by new technology.
·
Attention
focused on factories rather than small workshops.
1.2 The Pace of Industrial Change
Main Idea
Industrialisation was not as rapid
or complete as people often imagine.
1.2.1 Growth of Cotton, Iron and
Steel Industries
First Phase (Up to 1840s)
·
Cotton
industry dominated industrial growth.
Second Phase (After 1840s)
·
Iron
and steel industries became leading sectors.
Reason
·
Expansion
of railways increased demand for iron and steel.
Important Fact
·
By
1873, Britain's iron and steel exports were worth £77 million.
·
This
was double the value of cotton exports.
1.2.2 Traditional Industries
Survived
Reality
·
Factories
did not completely replace traditional industries.
Evidence
·
Less
than 20% of workers were employed in advanced industries.
·
Many
textiles were still produced in homes.
Significance
·
Industrialisation
was gradual rather than sudden.
1.2.3 Growth of Non-Mechanised
Industries
Examples
·
Food
processing
·
Pottery
·
Glass
making
·
Furniture
production
·
Building
industry
·
Tanning
Reason
·
Small
innovations improved productivity.
Significance
·
Growth
was not limited to machine-based industries.
1.2.4 Slow Spread of Technology
Reasons
·
Machines
were expensive.
·
Frequent
breakdowns.
·
High
repair costs.
·
Industrialists
were cautious.
Example: Steam Engine
Inventor
James Watt
Manufacturer
Matthew Boulton
Facts
·
Improved
steam engine patented in 1781.
·
Few
buyers initially.
·
Only
321 steam engines existed in England in the early 19th century.
Significance
·
Even
important inventions spread slowly.
1.2.5 The Typical Worker
Historical Reality
Most workers were:
·
Craftspeople
·
Artisans
·
Labourers
Not:
·
Machine
operators
Significance
·
Factories
did not dominate employment as much as commonly believed.
2. Hand Labour and Steam Power
Meaning
·
Even
during industrialisation, hand labour remained very important in Britain.
·
Industrialists
often preferred workers over machines.
Main Idea
Industrialisation did not completely
replace human labour with machines.
2.0.1 Why Industrialists Preferred
Hand Labour
1. Abundance of Labour
·
Large
numbers of poor peasants and unemployed people migrated to cities.
·
Labour
was easily available.
2. Low Wages
·
Excess
supply of workers kept wages low.
·
Industrialists
could hire workers cheaply.
3. High Cost of Machines
·
Machines
required large capital investment.
·
Employers
preferred inexpensive human labour.
Significance
·
The
availability of cheap labour slowed the spread of mechanisation.
2.0.2 Seasonal Industries and Labour
Demand
Meaning
Many industries needed extra workers
only during certain seasons.
Examples
|
Industry |
Peak
Season |
|
Gas
Works |
Winter |
|
Breweries |
Winter |
|
Printing
& Bookbinding |
Before
Christmas |
|
Ship
Repair |
Winter |
Why Hand Labour Was Preferred
·
Workers
could be hired temporarily.
·
Machines
were unnecessary for short-term increases in production.
Significance
·
Seasonal
demand encouraged the use of temporary labour instead of machines.
2.0.3 Importance of Skilled Hand
Labour
Problem with Machines
·
Machines
produced standardised goods.
·
They
could not easily create customised products.
Market Demand
People wanted:
·
Special
designs
·
Different
shapes
·
Individually
crafted products
Examples
·
500
varieties of hammers
·
45
kinds of axes
Importance
These products required:
·
Human
skill
·
Craftsmanship
·
Precision
Significance
·
Skilled
workers remained essential despite industrialisation.
2.0.4 Handmade Goods and Social
Status
Preference of Upper Classes
The aristocrats and bourgeoisie
preferred:
·
Handmade
products
·
Individually
designed goods
·
Better-finished
items
Why?
Handmade goods symbolised:
·
Wealth
·
Refinement
·
High
social status
Machine-Made Goods
·
Mostly
exported to colonies.
·
Considered
less prestigious.
Significance
·
Demand
for handcrafted goods remained strong.
2.0.5 Britain and America: A
Comparison
Britain
·
Labour
was abundant.
·
Wages
were low.
·
Industrialists
relied on workers.
America
·
Labour
was scarce.
·
Industrialists
preferred machines.
·
Mechanisation
reduced dependence on workers.
Significance
·
Industrial
development differed according to labour availability.
2.1 Life of the Workers
Meaning
Although industrialisation created
jobs, workers often faced hardship, insecurity and unemployment.
2.1.1 Migration to Cities
Reasons
·
News
of job opportunities attracted rural people.
·
Hundreds
migrated from villages to towns.
Problems
Getting work often depended on:
·
Friends
·
Relatives
·
Social
contacts
Difficulties
Workers without contacts:
·
Waited
weeks for jobs.
·
Lived
under bridges.
·
Stayed
in shelters.
2.1.2 Living Conditions of Job
Seekers
Where Did Unemployed Workers Stay?
Night
Refuges
·
Private
shelters for the homeless.
Casual
Wards
·
Government
shelters under Poor Law authorities.
Conditions
·
Overcrowded
·
Uncomfortable
·
Temporary
Significance
·
Reflects
the hardships faced by unemployed workers.
2.1.3 Seasonal Unemployment
Cause
Many industries provided work only during
busy seasons.
After Peak Season
Workers:
·
Lost
employment.
·
Returned
to villages.
·
Looked
for temporary jobs.
Impact
·
Income
became irregular.
·
Poverty
increased.
Significance
·
Seasonal
unemployment was a major problem.
2.1.4 Wages and Worker Welfare
Increase in Wages
·
Wages
rose somewhat during the early 19th century.
Why Workers Still Suffered
Rising
Prices
·
During
the Napoleonic Wars, prices increased sharply.
·
Workers
could buy fewer goods with the same wages.
Irregular
Employment
·
Income
depended on working days.
·
Unemployment
reduced earnings.
Significance
·
Wage
growth did not always improve living standards.
2.1.5 Poverty and Unemployment
Conditions
·
Around
10% of urban people lived in extreme poverty.
Economic Slumps
During the 1830s:
·
Unemployment
ranged from 35% to 75% in some regions.
Effects
·
Increased
poverty
·
Social
insecurity
·
Poor
living standards
Significance
·
Industrialisation
did not immediately improve workers' lives.
2.1.6 Workers' Opposition to
Machines
Reason
Workers feared:
·
Job
loss
·
Reduced
demand for labour
·
Lower
incomes
Example: Spinning Jenny
Inventor
James Hargreaves
Year
·
1764
Features
·
One
worker could spin many threads simultaneously.
·
Increased
productivity.
·
Reduced
labour requirements.
Workers' Reaction
·
Women
hand-spinners attacked the machines.
·
Resistance
continued for many years.
Significance
·
Demonstrates
conflict between labour and technology.
2.1.7 Employment Growth After the
1840s
Urban Development
Cities expanded rapidly.
Major Projects
·
Roads
widened
·
Railway
stations built
·
Railway
lines extended
·
Tunnels
dug
·
Sewers
constructed
·
Rivers
embanked
Impact on Employment
·
Created
new jobs.
·
Reduced
unemployment.
Transport Industry Growth
·
Employment
doubled during the 1840s.
·
Doubled
again in the next 30 years.
Significance
·
Infrastructure
projects increased job opportunities.
3.
Industrialisation in the Colonies
Meaning
- Industrialisation in colonies like India
followed a different path from Britain.
- Along with factories, non-mechanised
industries such as handloom weaving remained important.
- The textile industry was the most significant
industry in colonial India.
3.1
The Age of Indian Textiles
Meaning
Before the rise of machine
industries, India was one of the world's leading producers and exporters of
textiles.
Importance of Indian Textiles
- Indian silk and cotton textiles dominated
world markets.
- Fine cotton fabrics were especially famous.
- Indian textiles were known for their superior
quality.
3.1.1 Trade Routes and Markets
Land Routes
Indian textiles were
transported through:
- Punjab
- Afghanistan
- Eastern Persia
- Central Asia
Sea Routes
Major ports connected India
with international markets:
|
Port |
Trade Connections |
|
Surat |
Gulf and Red Sea |
|
Masulipatam |
Southeast Asia |
|
Hoogly |
Southeast Asia |
Significance
- India maintained extensive global trade
networks.
3.1.2 Role of Indian Merchants
and Bankers
Functions
Indian merchants:
- Financed production.
- Supplied raw materials.
- Collected finished goods.
- Arranged exports.
Supply Merchants
- Gave advances to weavers.
- Procured cloth from villages.
- Transported goods to ports.
Export Merchants
- Purchased goods through brokers.
- Sold them in international markets.
Significance
- Indian merchants controlled textile trade
before British dominance.
3.1.3 Decline of Traditional
Trade Networks
Causes
- European trading companies gained political
and economic power.
- They secured monopoly rights over trade.
Effects
- Old ports declined.
- Indian merchants lost control of trade.
- Credit networks weakened.
Example
- Trade through Surat fell from Rs 16 million to
Rs 3 million between the late 17th century and the 1740s.
Significance
- Traditional Indian trading systems collapsed
under colonial influence.
3.1.4 Rise of New Colonial
Ports
Growing Ports
- Bombay
- Calcutta
Features
- Controlled by European companies.
- Trade conducted through European ships.
Impact
- Shifted economic power from Indian merchants
to colonial companies.
Significance
- Reflected the growth of British colonial power
in India.
3.2
What Happened to Weavers?
Meaning
The rise of the East India
Company gradually worsened the condition of Indian weavers.
3.2.1 Initial Growth of
Textile Exports
Situation Before British
Industrial Growth
- Indian textiles remained popular in Europe.
- British cotton industries were still
developing.
Company's Interest
- Wanted to expand textile exports from India.
Significance
- Textile exports initially increased under
Company rule.
3.2.2 Competition Before
Company Monopoly
Before Political Control
The East India Company faced
competition from:
- French traders
- Dutch traders
- Portuguese traders
- Indian merchants
Benefits for Weavers
- Could sell to different buyers.
- Could negotiate better prices.
Significance
- Weavers enjoyed greater freedom in the market.
3.2.3 East India Company's
Monopoly
After Establishing Political
Power
The Company:
- Claimed monopoly rights over trade.
- Eliminated competition.
Objectives
- Control costs.
- Ensure regular supply.
- Increase profits.
Significance
- Reduced the independence of weavers.
3.2.4 Role of the Gomastha
Meaning
A Gomastha was a Company agent
appointed to supervise weavers.
Duties
- Supervised production.
- Collected cloth.
- Checked quality.
- Enforced Company rules.
Impact
- Replaced traditional merchants.
- Increased Company control over weavers.
3.2.5 System of Advances
Process
- Weavers received loans in advance.
- Loans helped purchase raw materials.
Conditions
- Cloth had to be sold only to the Company.
- Weavers could not sell to other buyers.
Effects
- Reduced freedom of weavers.
- Bound them to Company contracts.
Significance
- Created economic dependence on the Company.
3.2.6 Problems Faced by
Weavers
Behaviour of Gomasthas
- Outsiders to the villages.
- Often arrogant and oppressive.
- Used force through sepoys and peons.
Problems
- Low prices for cloth.
- No bargaining rights.
- Harsh punishments for delays.
Significance
- Increased exploitation of weavers.
3.2.7 Resistance by Weavers
Forms of Resistance
- Migrated to other villages.
- Set up looms elsewhere.
- Refused Company loans.
- Closed workshops.
- Revolted with local traders.
Result
Many shifted to agricultural
labour.
Significance
- Demonstrates opposition to colonial exploitation.
3.3
Manchester Comes to India
Meaning
The growth of British
industries led to the decline of Indian textile exports.
3.3.1 Decline of Indian
Textile Exports
Statistics
- 1811–12: Textiles formed 33% of India's
exports.
- 1850–51: Fell to only 3%.
Significance
- Shows the collapse of India's export market.
3.3.2 British Protection of
Manchester Industries
British Policies
Industrialists demanded:
- Import duties on foreign textiles.
- Protection for British industries.
East India Company's Role
- Encouraged sale of British goods in India.
Result
British textiles entered
Indian markets in large quantities.
3.3.3 Flood of Manchester
Goods
Growth of Imports
- By 1850, cotton piece-goods formed 31% of
Indian imports.
- By the 1870s, over 50%.
Why British Goods Dominated
- Machine-made.
- Produced at lower cost.
- Sold cheaply.
Impact
Indian weavers could not
compete.
Significance
- Led to the decline of handloom weaving.
3.3.4 Double Blow to Indian
Weavers
Problem 1
Export market collapsed.
Problem 2
Domestic market flooded with
British goods.
Result
- Falling income.
- Closure of weaving activities.
- Growing poverty.
Significance
- Intensified the crisis of Indian handloom
industries.
3.3.5 Impact of the American
Civil War
Background
- American cotton exports to Britain stopped
during the war.
British Response
- Turned to India for raw cotton.
Effects on Indian Weavers
- Cotton prices rose sharply.
- Shortage of good-quality cotton.
- Increased production costs.
Significance
- Further weakened Indian weaving.
3.3.6 Rise of Indian Factories
New Challenge
By the late nineteenth
century:
- Indian factories began producing machine-made
goods.
Impact
- Increased competition for handloom weavers.
- Reduced demand for handmade products.
Significance
- Traditional crafts faced pressure from both
British and Indian factories.
Important
Definitions
Gomastha
- Company agent appointed to supervise weavers
and collect cloth.
Sepoy
- Indian soldier employed by the British.
Monopoly
- Exclusive control over trade or production.
4. Factories Come Up
Meaning
·
Modern
factory industries began developing in India during the second half of the 19th
century.
·
Cotton
and jute industries were the first major factory industries.
·
Indian
entrepreneurs and merchants played an important role in setting up these
industries.
4.0.1 Growth of Factory Industries
in India
Important Developments
|
Year |
Industry/Factory |
|
1854 |
First cotton mill established in
Bombay |
|
1855 |
First jute mill established in
Bengal |
|
1860s |
Elgin Mill started in Kanpur |
|
1861 |
First cotton mill established in
Ahmedabad |
|
1874 |
First spinning and weaving mill
started in Madras |
Significance
·
Marked
the expansion of mechanised industrial production in India.
·
Cotton
and jute became the leading factory industries.
4.1 The Early Entrepreneurs
Meaning
Different groups of Indian businessmen
and traders invested in industries and became early industrial entrepreneurs.
4.1.1 Trade with China and
Industrial Investment
Background
·
British
exported opium from India to China.
·
Tea
was imported from China to England.
Role of Indians
Many Indian businessmen:
·
Financed
trade.
·
Procured
supplies.
·
Managed
shipments.
Result
Profits from trade were later
invested in industries.
Significance
·
International
trade helped create India's first industrial entrepreneurs.
4.1.2 Important Early Industrialists
Dwarkanath Tagore
·
Earned
wealth through China trade.
·
Established
six joint-stock companies in the 1830s and 1840s.
·
One
of the earliest Indian industrial investors.
Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata
·
Parsi
businessman from Bombay.
·
Invested
profits from China trade and cotton exports.
·
Built
one of India's largest industrial groups.
Dinshaw Petit
·
Earned
wealth through trade.
·
Invested
in textile industries.
Seth Hukumchand
·
Established
the first Indian-owned jute mill in Calcutta in 1917.
Ghanshyam Das Birla
·
Belonged
to a family involved in China trade.
·
Later
built a major industrial empire..
4.1.3 Other Sources of Capital
Regional Trade Networks
Madras
Merchants
·
Traded
with Burma.
Other
Merchants
·
Maintained
links with:
o Middle East
o East Africa
Internal Traders
Many commercial groups:
·
Transported
goods.
·
Financed
traders.
·
Transferred
money between cities.
Significance
·
Industrial
capital came from both international and domestic trade.
4.1.4 Impact of Colonial Policies on
Indian Entrepreneurs
Restrictions Imposed by British Rule
Indian merchants were:
·
Prevented
from trading manufactured goods with Europe.
·
Forced
to export mostly raw materials.
Main Exports
·
Raw
cotton
·
Opium
·
Wheat
·
Indigo
Additional Problem
·
Gradually
removed from the shipping business.
Significance
·
Limited
opportunities for Indian businessmen.
4.1.5 European Managing Agencies
Meaning
Large European firms controlled many
industries in India before World War I.
Major Agencies
·
Bird
Heiglers & Co.
·
Andrew
Yule & Co.
·
Jardine
Skinner & Co.
Functions
·
Collected
capital.
·
Established
companies.
·
Managed
industrial enterprises.
·
Took
important business decisions.
Situation of Indians
·
Indians
often supplied capital.
·
Europeans
controlled management and decisions.
Significance
·
Economic
power remained largely in European hands.
4.2 Where Did the Workers Come From?
Meaning
The expansion of factories created a
growing demand for industrial workers.
4.2.1 Growth of Industrial Workforce
Statistics
|
Year |
Factory
Workers |
|
1901 |
584,000 |
|
1946 |
Over 2,436,000 |
Significance
·
Shows
rapid industrial expansion.
·
Increasing
need for labour..
4.2.2 Sources of Labour
Main Sources
Workers came from:
·
Nearby
villages
·
Surrounding
districts
Reasons for Migration
·
Lack
of employment in villages.
·
Poverty
among peasants and artisans.
Examples
Bombay
Mills
·
Over
50% workers came from Ratnagiri district.
Kanpur
Mills
·
Workers
mostly came from nearby villages.
Significance
·
Rural
migration became a key feature of industrialisation.
4.2.3 Movement Between Village and
City
Pattern
Workers often:
·
Worked
in cities.
·
Returned
to villages during:
o Harvest seasons
o Festivals
Reason
·
Maintained
ties with their rural homes.
·
Agriculture
remained important.
Significance
·
Industrial
workers were not permanently urban.
4.2.4 Long-Distance Migration
Development
As news of jobs spread:
·
Workers
travelled greater distances.
Example
Workers from:
·
United
Provinces (present-day Uttar Pradesh)
Moved to:
·
Bombay
textile mills
·
Calcutta
jute mills
Significance
·
Industrialisation
encouraged large-scale migration.
4.2.5 Role of the Jobber
Meaning
A Jobber was a trusted worker
appointed to recruit labourers for factories.
Functions
·
Recruited
workers.
·
Brought
labourers from villages.
·
Helped
them find jobs.
·
Assisted
during financial crises.
·
Helped
them settle in cities.
Significance
·
Became
an important link between employers and workers.
4.2.6 Power and Influence of Jobbers
Growing Authority
Because workers depended on them,
jobbers:
·
Gained
influence.
·
Controlled
access to jobs.
Problems
Some jobbers:
·
Demanded
money.
·
Expected
gifts.
·
Exercised
control over workers.
Significance
·
Created
a system of dependency and exploitation.
4.2.7 Size of the Industrial
Workforce
Reality
·
Factory
workers increased in number.
·
However,
they remained a small part of India's total workforce.
Importance
·
Many
people still worked in:
o Agriculture
o Handicrafts
o Small-scale industries
5. The Peculiarities of Industrial
Growth
Meaning
·
Industrial
growth in India was different from that of Britain.
·
Large
factories existed, but small-scale and household industries continued to play
an important role.
·
Colonial
policies and world events greatly influenced industrial development.
5.0.1 Role of European Managing
Agencies
Main Areas of Investment
European Managing Agencies focused
on industries that served export markets.
Industries Developed
·
Tea
plantations
·
Coffee
plantations
·
Indigo
production
·
Jute
industry
·
Mining
Why?
These products were mainly exported
to foreign markets rather than sold in India.
Significance
·
Industrial
development was shaped by colonial economic interests.
5.0.2 Early Strategy of Indian
Industrialists
Problem
Indian businessmen could not easily
compete with cheap Manchester cloth.
Solution
They focused on producing:
·
Coarse
cotton yarn (thread)
·
Not
finished cloth
Market for Indian Yarn
·
Used
by Indian handloom weavers.
·
Exported
to China.
Significance
·
Helped
Indian industries survive despite British competition.
5.0.3 Impact of the Swadeshi
Movement
Background
The Swadeshi Movement encouraged:
·
Boycott
of foreign goods.
·
Use
of Indian-made products.
Effects
·
Increased
demand for Indian goods.
·
Encouraged
industrial growth.
·
Strengthened
nationalist economic policies.
Actions of Industrialists
·
Formed
associations.
·
Demanded
tariff protection.
·
Sought
government concessions.
Significance
·
Created
favourable conditions for Indian industries.
5.0.4 Decline of Yarn Exports to
China
Cause
Chinese and Japanese mills began
producing yarn cheaply.
Effect
·
Indian
yarn exports to China declined after 1906.
Response of Indian Industrialists
·
Shifted
from yarn production to cloth production.
Result
·
Cotton
piece-goods production doubled between 1900 and 1912.
Significance
·
Marked
a change in India's industrial strategy.
5.0.5 Impact of the First World War
Situation Before the War
·
Industrial
growth was slow.
·
Manchester
goods dominated Indian markets.
Changes During the War
Decline
of British Imports
·
British
factories focused on war supplies.
·
Imports
into India decreased.
Expansion
of Indian Industries
Indian factories supplied:
·
Army
uniforms
·
Jute
bags
·
Tents
·
Leather
boots
·
Saddles
Effects
·
New
factories established.
·
Multiple
shifts introduced.
·
More
workers employed.
·
Longer
working hours.
Significance
·
The
war accelerated industrial growth in India.
5.0.6 Industrial Growth After the
War
Britain's Problems
After the war Britain:
·
Could
not modernise industries effectively.
·
Faced
competition from:
o USA
o Germany
o Japan
Result
·
British
cotton exports declined.
·
Manchester
lost its dominance.
Impact on India
·
Indian
industrialists captured larger domestic markets.
·
Replaced
imported products with local goods.
Significance
·
Strengthened
Indian industries.
5.1 Small-Scale Industries
Predominate
Meaning
Even though factories grew,
small-scale industries remained more important in terms of employment and
production.
5.1.1 Limited Role of Large Industries
Facts
·
About
67% of large industries were concentrated in:
o Bengal
o Bombay
Employment Statistics
|
Year |
Factory
Labour Force |
|
1911 |
5% |
|
1931 |
10% |
Reality
Most workers were employed in:
·
Small
workshops
·
Household
industries
Significance
·
Factory
industries represented only a small part of total industrial employment.
5.1.2 Survival of Handloom
Industries
Common Belief
Many people thought factories would
destroy handloom weaving.
Reality
Handloom weaving survived and
expanded.
Statistics
·
Handloom
cloth production nearly tripled between 1900 and 1940.
Significance
·
Traditional
industries adapted successfully.
5.1.3 Technological Improvements in
Handlooms
Important Innovation
Fly Shuttle Loom
Advantages
·
Increased
productivity.
·
Reduced
labour requirements.
·
Increased
speed of weaving.
Spread
By 1941:
·
Over
35% of Indian handlooms used fly shuttles.
·
In
regions such as Travancore, Madras, Mysore, Cochin and Bengal, usage reached
70–80%.
Significance
·
Technology
helped handloom weavers compete with factories.
5.1.4 Why Some Weavers Survived
Better Than Others
Producers of Coarse Cloth
Customers
·
Poor
people
Problem
Demand declined during:
·
Famines
·
Bad
harvests
·
Economic
crises
Producers of Fine Cloth
Customers
·
Wealthy
people
Advantage
Demand remained stable.
Examples
·
Banarasi
sarees
·
Baluchari
sarees
Significance
·
Producers
of luxury goods faced less competition.
5.1.5 Specialised Products and
Market Survival
Why Mills Could Not Replace Them
Factories could not easily imitate:
·
Sarees
with woven borders
·
Madras
lungis
·
Special
handkerchiefs
·
Artistic
handwoven textiles
Importance
·
Preserved
demand for handloom products.
Significance
·
Traditional
craftsmanship remained valuable.
5.1.6 Life of Weavers and
Craftspeople
Working Conditions
·
Long
working hours.
·
Hard
physical labour.
·
Low
incomes.
Family Labour
Entire families participated:
·
Men
·
Women
·
Children
Importance
Despite hardships:
·
They
remained an essential part of industrialisation.
Significance
·
Industrialisation
included both factories and traditional producers.
6. Market for Goods
Meaning
·
Producing
goods alone was not enough; manufacturers also had to convince people to buy
them.
·
Advertisements
played a major role in creating demand and expanding markets.
6.0.1 Importance of Advertisements
Why Were Advertisements Needed?
When new products entered the
market:
·
People
had to be persuaded to buy them.
·
New
needs and desires had to be created.
Functions of Advertisements
·
Promote
products.
·
Attract
customers.
·
Create
brand recognition.
·
Influence
consumer behaviour.
Significance
·
Became
an important tool for industrial expansion.
6.0.2 Advertisements and Consumer
Culture
Meaning
Advertisements did more than sell
products.
They Helped To:
·
Shape
public opinion.
·
Influence
people's choices.
·
Create
a new consumer culture.
Methods Used
Advertisements appeared in:
·
Newspapers
·
Magazines
·
Hoardings
·
Street
walls
·
Calendars
Significance
·
Changed
people's attitudes towards consumption.
6.0.3 Labels on Manchester Goods
Purpose of Labels
When British manufacturers sold
cloth in India, they attached labels to cloth bundles.
Functions
·
Identified
the manufacturer.
·
Indicated
the place of production.
·
Guaranteed
quality.
Example
·
"MADE
IN MANCHESTER"
Expected Effect
·
Buyers
would trust the product.
·
Manchester
cloth would gain popularity.
Significance
·
Labels
acted as symbols of quality and reliability.
6.0.4 Use of Images in
Advertisements
Special Feature
Labels contained:
·
Attractive
illustrations.
·
Religious
and cultural symbols.
Purpose
·
Make
products more appealing.
·
Create
familiarity among buyers.
Significance
·
Visual
advertisements were effective even among illiterate people.
6.0.5 Use of Gods and Goddesses
Common Images
Advertisements often featured:
·
Krishna
·
Saraswati
·
Other
Hindu deities
Reasons
Divine
Approval
·
Suggested
that the product was blessed by gods.
Familiarity
·
Made
foreign goods seem culturally acceptable.
Significance
·
Increased
public confidence in products.
6.0.6 Role of Calendars in
Advertising
Why Calendars Were Effective
Unlike newspapers:
·
Even
illiterate people used calendars.
·
Calendars
remained visible throughout the year.
Places Where They Were Displayed
·
Homes
·
Tea
shops
·
Offices
·
Shops
Features
·
Contained
advertisements.
·
Often
displayed images of gods and goddesses.
Significance
·
Provided
continuous publicity for products.
6.0.7 Use of Emperors and Nawabs in
Advertisements
Common Images
Manufacturers used pictures of:
·
Emperors
·
Kings
·
Nawabs
·
Royal
personalities
Message Conveyed
·
Products
used by royalty must be of high quality.
·
Respect
for rulers should translate into trust in the product.
Significance
·
Linked
products with prestige and authority.
6.0.8 Nationalist Advertisements and
Swadeshi
Strategy of Indian Manufacturers
Indian industrialists used
advertisements to spread nationalist ideas.
Main Message
"If you love your nation, buy
Indian-made goods."
Connection with Swadeshi Movement
·
Encouraged
boycott of foreign products.
·
Promoted
indigenous industries.
Significance
·
Advertisements
became tools of nationalism.
Conclusion: The Age of Industries
Major Features of Industrialisation
Positive Developments
·
Technological
progress.
·
Growth
of factories.
·
Expansion
of industries.
·
Creation
of industrial labour force.
Important Reality
Despite factory growth:
·
Hand
technology survived.
·
Small-scale
industries remained important.
·
Traditional
crafts continued alongside modern industries.
Significance
Industrialisation was not simply a
story of machines replacing hand labour.
********
EXERCISE
1.
Explain the Following
(a) Why did women workers in
Britain attack the Spinning Jenny?
Women workers attacked the Spinning
Jenny because it reduced the need for hand spinners. They feared losing
their jobs and income, as the machine could spin several threads at the same
time and replace many workers.
(b) Why did merchants from
towns in Europe begin employing peasants and artisans in villages in the
seventeenth century?
Merchants moved to villages
because powerful trade guilds in towns restricted production and entry into
trade. In villages, peasants and artisans were willing to work for merchants as
they needed additional income.
(c) Why did the port of Surat
decline by the end of the eighteenth century?
Surat declined because
European trading companies, especially the East India Company, gained monopoly
rights over trade. Trade shifted to new colonial ports like Bombay and
Calcutta, causing Surat's exports and commercial importance to fall.
(d) Why did the East India
Company appoint gomasthas to supervise weavers in India?
The Company appointed gomasthas
to:
- Supervise weavers,
- Collect cloth supplies,
- Check quality,
- Prevent weavers from selling to other buyers,
- Ensure regular and cheap supply of textiles
for export.
2.
True or False
|
Statement |
Answer |
|
(a) At the end of the nineteenth century, 80% of the total workforce in
Europe was employed in technologically advanced industries. |
False |
|
(b) The international market for fine textiles was dominated by India
till the eighteenth century. |
True |
|
(c) The American Civil War resulted in the reduction of cotton exports
from India. |
False |
|
(d) The introduction of the fly shuttle enabled handloom workers to
improve their productivity. |
True |
3.
What is Proto-Industrialisation? Discuss.
Proto-industrialisation refers
to the phase of industrial development before the establishment of factories.
It existed mainly during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
Features of
Proto-Industrialisation
- Goods were produced on a large scale for
international markets.
- Production was carried out in villages and
homes, not factories.
- Merchants supplied raw materials and advances
to peasants and artisans.
- Rural families produced goods using their own
labour.
- Merchants controlled production and marketing.
Importance
- It connected towns and villages through
commercial networks.
- It provided additional income to peasants.
- It laid the foundation for the Industrial
Revolution and factory system.
Project
Work Answers
1. Why did some industrialists
in nineteenth-century Europe prefer hand labour over machines?
Industrialists preferred hand
labour because:
- Labour was easily available and cheap.
- Many industries had seasonal demand.
- Handmade products required skilled
craftsmanship.
- Machines produced standardised goods only.
- Wealthy consumers preferred handmade products
as symbols of quality and status.
- Machines were expensive and required heavy
investment.
2. How did the East India
Company procure regular supplies of cotton and silk textiles from Indian
weavers?
The East India Company ensured
regular supplies by:
- Appointing gomasthas to supervise
weavers.
- Giving advances (loans) to weavers for buying
raw materials.
- Forcing weavers who accepted advances to sell
only to the Company.
- Eliminating competition from other traders and
brokers.
- Controlling prices and production through
strict supervision.
As a result, weavers lost
their freedom to sell to other buyers.
3. Britain and the History of
Cotton (Encyclopaedia Article)
Britain and the History of
Cotton
The cotton industry played a
leading role in Britain's Industrial Revolution. Before factories emerged,
cotton cloth was produced through the proto-industrial system, where rural
families worked for merchants. During the eighteenth century, several
technological inventions improved spinning and weaving, increasing
productivity.
Richard Arkwright established
the cotton mill, bringing different stages of production under one roof. Cotton
imports into Britain increased rapidly, and cotton became the leading industry
until the 1840s.
Factories expanded throughout
Britain, but traditional industries and hand labour continued to exist. New
technologies such as the steam engine gradually improved industrial production,
although their adoption was slow.
The growth of railways
increased demand for iron and steel, shifting industrial leadership away from
cotton. Nevertheless, the cotton industry remained a symbol of Britain's
industrial success and played a crucial role in transforming its economy and
society.
4. Why did industrial
production in India increase during the First World War?
Industrial production
increased during the First World War because:
- British factories were busy producing war
materials.
- Imports of Manchester goods into India
declined.
- Indian factories got a large domestic market
to supply.
- The government placed orders for:
- Army uniforms,
- Jute bags,
- Tents,
- Leather boots,
- Saddles and other military goods.
- New factories were established.
- Existing factories increased production by
running multiple shifts.
- More workers were employed and worked longer
hours.
As a result, industrial
production in India expanded rapidly during the war years.
********