4. New Beginnings: Cities and
States
Decline
of the Harappan Civilization
- The Harappan Civilization, also called the
Indus or Sindhu-Sarasvatī Civilization, declined around the early 2nd
millennium BCE.
- It is known as India’s “First Urbanisation”
because it had advanced cities and organised urban life.
- After its decline:
- Many cities were abandoned.
- Some people continued living there but
shifted to village life.
- Important features of Harappan urban life
disappeared:
- Large public and private buildings
- Planned streets
- Markets and trade centres
- Specialised occupations
- Writing system
- Drainage and sanitation
- Administrative system
- Strong state structure
- Urban life remained mostly absent for nearly
one thousand years.
- During this period:
- Regional cultures developed in different
parts of India.
Beginning
of the Second Urbanisation
- In the 1st millennium BCE, urbanisation began
again in:
- Ganga plains
- Parts of the Indus basin
- Nearby regions
- This new phase is called:
- India’s “Second Urbanisation”
- Urbanisation gradually spread to many parts of
the Indian Subcontinent.
- Information about this period comes mainly
from:
- Archaeological excavations
- Ancient literature
- Literary sources include:
- Late Vedic texts
- Buddhist literature
- Jain literature
- These texts mention:
- Cities
- Trade
- Rulers
- Social life
- Urban centres
Janapadas
- Towards the end of the 2nd millennium BCE,
regional cultures reorganised themselves into clans and groups.
- These groups shared:
- Common language
- Common customs
- Common traditions
- Each group became associated with a territory
called a janapada.
- Meaning of Janapada:
- Jana = People
- Pada = Foot
- Janapada means:
- “The place where people settled down”
- Each janapada was ruled by:
- A rājā or king
- Trade networks connected different janapadas
and helped them grow stronger.
Mahājanapadas
- By the 8th or 7th century BCE, several
janapadas merged together.
- These larger political units were called:
- Mahājanapadas
- Ancient texts frequently mention:
- Sixteen Mahājanapadas
- They extended from:
- Gandhāra in the northwest
- Anga in the east
- Aśhmaka near the Godavari River
- Some smaller janapadas continued
independently.
Capitals
and Fortified Cities
- Capitals of Mahājanapadas were:
- Large
- Well-planned
- Strongly fortified
- Cities had:
- Rampart walls
- Moats
- Narrow gateways
- Moats were deep water-filled ditches used for
protection.
- Narrow gateways helped guards control:
- Movement of people
- Movement of goods
- Many ancient capitals still survive today as
modern cities.
- Some of these cities are nearly:
- 2500 years old
Early
Democratic Traditions
- Every janapada had assemblies called:
- Sabhā
- Samiti
- These terms first appear in the Vedas.
- Assemblies probably included:
- Elders
- Important clan members
- Assemblies discussed:
- Clan matters
- Administration
- Welfare
- Political decisions
- Kings were not expected to rule independently.
- A good ruler took advice from:
- Assemblies
- Ministers
- Administrators
- Some texts mention that incompetent rulers
could be removed by assemblies.
- These traditions show the existence of early
democratic ideas in ancient India.
Monarchies
in Mahājanapadas
- Many Mahājanapadas followed monarchy.
- In monarchies:
- The king was the supreme authority.
- Kingship was hereditary.
- Responsibilities of kings included:
- Collecting taxes
- Maintaining law and order
- Building fortifications
- Maintaining armies
- Defending territories
- Fighting wars
- Powerful monarchies included:
- Magadha
- Kosala
- Avanti
Gaṇas and Sanghas
- Some Mahājanapadas had a different political
system.
- Important examples:
- Vajji
- Malla
- In these states:
- Assemblies had greater power.
- Important decisions were taken through
discussion.
- Voting was used when necessary.
- Assemblies even selected rulers.
- These states were called:
- Gaṇas
- Sanghas
- Scholars describe them as:
- Early republics
- They are among the earliest democratic systems
in the world.
Religious
and Cultural Developments
- This period saw the rise of important schools
of thought:
- Late Vedic traditions
- Buddhism
- Jainism
- Their teachings spread through:
- Scholars
- Monks
- Nuns
- Pilgrims
- Literature and intellectual discussions
increased during this time.
- Indian art also developed and later flourished
during the age of empires.
Iron
Technology
- The Harappans mainly used:
- Copper
- Bronze
- During the Second Urbanisation:
- Iron technology became important
- Techniques of extracting and shaping iron
improved gradually.
- By the late 2nd millennium BCE:
- Iron tools became widely used.
- Iron helped agriculture because:
- Forests could be cleared more easily.
- Farming increased on a larger scale.
- Iron weapons were:
- Stronger
- Sharper
- Lighter than bronze weapons
- Common iron weapons included:
- Swords
- Spears
- Arrows
- Shields
- There is evidence of warfare between
neighbouring Mahājanapadas.
- Military campaigns and alliances later helped
in the rise of kingdoms and empires.
Coins
and Trade
- Growing trade created the need for coins.
- The first Indian coins were:
- Made of silver
- Marked with punched symbols
- These are called:
- Punch-marked coins
- Later:
- Copper coins
- Gold coins
- Coins of other metals
were also used.
- Different Mahājanapadas issued their own
coins.
- Coins were exchanged:
- Across Indian regions
- With foreign lands
- Trade expanded rapidly during this period.
The
Varṇa–Jāti
System
- As society became more complex, people organised
themselves into groups.
- These groups were based on:
- Occupation
- Social functions
- Livelihood
Jāti
- Jāti referred to a community linked with a
specific occupation.
- Examples:
- Farmers
- Traders
- Metalworkers
- Craftspeople
- Occupational skills usually passed from
generation to generation.
- Many jātis later divided into:
- Sub-jātis
- Sub-jātis developed their own:
- Customs
- Marriage rules
- Rituals
- Food habits
Varṇa System
- The varṇa system emerged from
Vedic traditions.
- Four varṇas were described:
- Brahmins
- Preserved knowledge
- Performed rituals
- Kshatriyas
- Protected society
- Engaged in warfare
- Vaishyas
- Involved in trade
- Agriculture
- Business
- Shudras
- Worked as artisans
- Craftspeople
- Workers
- Servants
- In early periods, occupations were more
flexible.
- People sometimes changed professions because
of:
- Natural calamities
- Economic needs
- Migration
- Later, the system became rigid.
- Social inequalities and discrimination
increased over time.
Communication
Routes
- Important communication routes developed
during the 1st millennium BCE.
- Two major routes became famous:
- Uttarapatha
- Connected northwest India with the Ganga
plains and eastern India
- Dakṣiṇapatha
- Connected northern India with southern
regions
- These routes were used for:
- Trade
- Pilgrimage
- Military movement
- Cultural exchange
- Smaller roads connected important ports on
eastern and western coasts.
Śhiśhupalgarh
(Sisupalgarh)
- Śhiśhupalgarh was an important city in eastern
India.
- Present-day location:
- Bhubaneswar, Odisha
- It was:
- Capital of Kalinga
- Important features:
- Square city plan
- Broad streets
- Strong fortifications
Southern
Kingdoms
- Around 400 BCE, important kingdoms emerged in
south India:
- Cholas
- Cheras
- Pāṇḍyas
- Ancient Tamil literature mentions:
- These kingdoms
- Their rulers
- Southern India was rich in:
- Gold
- Precious stones
- Spices
- Southern kingdoms traded with:
- Other parts of India
- Foreign kingdoms and empires
A
Connected Indian Subcontinent
- By 300–200 BCE:
- Most parts of India became interconnected.
- Goods, culture, and ideas travelled across
regions.
- India also developed links with:
- Central Asia
- Southeast Asia
- During this time:
- Mahājanapadas gradually disappeared.
- New kingdoms and empires emerged.
Questions and Activities
1.
What does Kauṭilya recommend for a kingdom? Is it very
different today?
Kauṭilya
believed that a strong kingdom should have:
·
A
wise and capable ruler
·
Good
administration
·
Strong
defence and army
·
Proper
collection of taxes
·
Well-planned
cities and forts
·
Protection
of people and trade
·
Law
and order in the kingdom
·
Honest
ministers and officials
He believed that the king should
work for the welfare and security of the people.
Is
it different today?
Some ideas are still similar today
because modern governments also focus on:
·
Administration
·
Security
·
Defence
·
Tax
collection
·
Welfare
of people
·
Development
of cities and trade
However, today most countries follow
democratic systems where leaders are elected by people, unlike ancient kingdoms
ruled mainly by kings.
2.
According to the text, how were rulers chosen in early Vedic society?
·
In
early Vedic society, rulers were called rājās.
·
The
king was not expected to rule alone.
·
Assemblies
such as sabhā and samiti played an important role.
·
Elders
and important members of society advised the ruler.
·
In
some cases, assemblies could even remove an incompetent ruler.
·
In
gaṇas and sanghas like Vajji and Malla,
rulers were selected by assemblies through discussion and voting.
Thus, rulers were chosen with the
support and approval of assemblies in many early political systems.
3.
What sources would historians use to study the Mahājanapadas?
A historian would use different
types of sources to study the Mahājanapadas.
Archaeological
Sources
Excavations
·
Excavations
help discover:
o Ancient cities
o Forts
o Streets
o Buildings
o Pottery
o Tools
Coins
·
Punch-marked
coins give information about:
o Trade
o Economy
o Political systems
Weapons and Iron Tools
·
Iron
objects show:
o Technological development
o Agriculture
o Warfare
Fortifications and Moats
·
These
help historians understand:
o Defence systems
o City planning
Literary
Sources
Vedic Texts
·
Provide
information about:
o Society
o Assemblies
o Kingship
Buddhist and Jain Literature
·
Mention:
o Cities
o Trade routes
o Mahājanapadas
o Rulers
Ancient Political Texts
·
Texts
like Arthashastra explain:
o Administration
o Governance
o Economy
Inscriptions
and Records
·
Inscriptions
help historians understand:
o Rulers
o Kingdoms
o Social systems
o Trade activities
Together, these sources help
historians build a clear picture of ancient Indian society and political life.
4.
Why was iron metallurgy important for urbanism in the 1st millennium BCE?
Iron metallurgy played a major role
in the growth of cities and urban life.
Importance
in Agriculture
·
Iron
tools were stronger than copper and bronze tools.
·
Forests
could be cleared more easily.
·
Farming
increased on a larger scale.
·
More
food production supported growing populations.
Importance
in Warfare
·
Iron
weapons were:
o Stronger
o Sharper
o Lighter
·
Kingdoms
built stronger armies and protected their territories.
Importance
in Urban Growth
·
Better
agriculture increased trade and wealth.
·
Growing
trade supported the development of towns and cities.
·
Crafts
and occupations expanded.
·
More
people settled in urban centres.
Importance
in Technology and Society
·
Iron
tools improved:
o Construction
o Farming
o Transport
o Craft production
Thus, iron metallurgy helped in the
growth of agriculture, trade, warfare, and urbanisation during the Second
Urbanisation in India.
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