Chapter:2
Reshaping India’s Political Map
1. Introduction to
Political Change in Medieval India
The
chapter explores how India's political map changed from the 13th to 17th
century, focusing on dynasties, invasions, administrative systems, and regional
powers.
It critically evaluates the Delhi Sultanate, Mughal Empire, Vijayanagara
Empire, and early Sikh assertion.
2.
Rise and Fall of The Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)
Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate:
The Delhi Sultanate was formed after the defeat of King Prithviraj Chauhan
in 1192.
The Sultanate saw the rule of five successive foreign dynasties of
Turkic-Afghan origin:
- Mamluks (or 'Slave dynasty')
- Khiljis (or Khaljis)
- Tughlaqs
- Sayyids
- Lodis (or Lodhis)
Key Features of the Delhi Sultanate:
Political Instability: The Sultanate period was marked by political
instability, with frequent violent successions and short average reigns of
sultans (about 9 years).
Territorial
Expansion: The
Sultanate expanded its territories through military campaigns, raiding villages
and cities, and plundering and destroying temples and seats of learning.
Military
Campaigns: Notable
military campaigns were conducted by:
- Ala-ud-din Khilji (north and central India)
- Malik Kafur (southward expansion), raids on Srirangam, Madurai,
Chidambaram, etc.
- Muhammad bin Tughlaq (further expansion)
Administrative
and Economic Policies:
-
Taxes: The sultans levied taxes on common people and conquered regions,
including the jizya (a tax on non-Muslim subjects).
- Slave Trade: The Sultanate engaged in the slave trade, using enslaved people
for free labor or selling them in distant Central Asia.
- Token Currency: Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced token currency (copper coins
declared to have the value of silver or gold coins), which led to economic
decline and confusion.
Cultural and Social Impact:
- Destruction of Temples: The Sultanate period witnessed numerous attacks
on sacred or revered images in Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu temples, motivated by
plunder and iconoclasm.
- Luxurious Lifestyle: The sultans and their court elite lived in luxurious
palaces, enjoying elaborate clothing, jewelled ornaments, and fine food.
Decline
of the Delhi Sultanate:
-
Invasion by Timur: The invasion by Timur in the late 14th century devastated
Delhi and led to a significant decline in the Sultanate's power.
- Emergence of New Kingdoms: The Sultanate's territory shrunk considerably due
to increasing resistance from other states and kingdoms within India.
- Lodi Dynasty: The Lodis emerged and established the last dynasty of the Delhi
Sultanate, but its power and influence continued to decline.
3. Resistance to the Delhi Sultanate
- Multiple Quarters: The Delhi Sultanate faced resistance from
various quarters, including kingdoms, regional Sultanates, and local rulers.
- Eastern Ganga Kingdom: The Eastern Ganga kingdom of Kalinga (present-day
Odisha and parts of Bengal and Andhra Pradesh) resisted the Delhi Sultanate's
advances.
- Narasimhadeva I: One of the notable rulers of the Eastern Ganga kingdom was
Narasimhadeva I, who repelled multiple inroads of the Sultanate and defeated
the Delhi Sultanate's governor of Bengal.
Cultural Achievements:
- Sun Temple at Konark: Narasimhadeva I built the famed Sun Temple at
Konark (present-day Odisha) to commemorate his victories.
Hoysala Kingdom:
- Resistance to Delhi Sultanate: The Hoysala kingdom (present-day
Karnataka) resisted the Delhi Sultanate's attacks and remained the only
independent kingdom in the south for a while.
- Decline and Absorption: Weakened by internal conflicts and external attacks,
the Hoysala kingdom declined and was absorbed into the Vijayanagara Empire in
the mid-14th century.
Emergence of Independent Regional Sultanates:
- Bahmani Sultanate: The Bahmani Sultanate emerged in the mid-14th century
and controlled much of the Deccan region.
- Other Sultanates: Powerful Sultanates also emerged in Gujarat, Bengal, and
other regions, leading to a complex interplay of alliances and frequent wars.
Resistance from Rajasthan:
- Rana Kumbha: In the 15th century, Rana Kumbha, the ruler of the Mewar
kingdom, resisted the Delhi Sultanate and later Sultanates, repelling invasions
and maintaining independence.
Key Features of Resistance:
- Military Strength: The resisting kingdoms and Sultanates demonstrated
military strength and strategic alliances.
- Cultural Resilience: The resistance also showcased cultural resilience, with
kingdoms like the Eastern Ganga kingdom and the Hoysala kingdom promoting their
own art, architecture, and literature.
Significance of Resistance:
- Limitations of Delhi Sultanate: The resistance highlights the limitations
of the Delhi Sultanate's power and its inability to unify the entire
subcontinent under its rule.
- Diversity and Complexity: The period showcases the diversity and complexity
of India's political landscape, with multiple kingdoms, Sultanates, and
regional powers interacting and influencing each other.
4. Establishment of the
Vijayanagara Empire
-
Founders: Harihara and Bukka, two brothers who initially served as governors
under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, established an independent kingdom in the 14th
century.
- Rejection of Delhi's Authority: The brothers rejected Delhi's authority and
founded the Vijayanagara Empire, which became a significant force in southern
India.
Rise to Power:
- Growth: The Vijayanagara Empire grew in power and influence, becoming a
major centre of politics, economy, and culture in southern India.
- Rivalry with Bahmani Sultanate: The Vijayanagara Empire had a major rivalry
with the Bahmani Sultanate to its north, which eventually fragmented into five
independent states called the Deccan Sultanates.
Deccan Sultanates:
- Five Independent States: The Bahmani Sultanate fragmented into five
independent states:
- Bijapur
- Golconda
- Berar
- Ahmednagar
- Bidar
- Former Governors: Each of these states was ruled by former governors or
tarafdars who declared autonomy.
Conflicts and Battles:
- Battles with Deccan Sultanates: The Vijayanagara rulers battled with the
Deccan Sultanates, particularly Bijapur and Golconda.
- Conflicts with Gajapati Rulers: The Vijayanagara Empire also had conflicts
with the Gajapati rulers of Odisha in the east.
5. Krishnadevaraya's Rule
-
Peak of the Empire: Krishnadevaraya ruled the Vijayanagara Empire in the 16th
century and brought it to its peak, expanding and securing its dominance over
the Deccan.
- Military Power: Under his rule, the empire achieved significant military
power, winning many wars against its neighbors.
-
Cultural Renaissance: Krishnadevaraya's rule was also marked by a cultural
renaissance, with patronage of poets, scholars, and artists in Sanskrit,
Telugu, and Kannada.
Literary
Contributions:
-
Āmuktamālyada: Krishnadevaraya composed an epic poem in Telugu, Āmuktamālyada,
on the story of the Tamil poet-saint Āṇḍāl.
-
Rājanīti: One section of the work is a Rājanīti
('royal policy') where he expounded his ideas on good governance.
Temple
Patronage:
-
Grants to Temples: Krishnadevaraya provided grants to many temples, including
Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh and the Vitthala temple in Vijayanagara.
- Grand Temples and Buildings: The capital city, Vijayanagara, displayed many
grand temples, palaces, and other buildings during his rule.
Decline
of the Empire:
Krishnadevraya
died of illness in 1529.
Battle
of Talikota: In 1565, the Deccan Sultanates formed a coalition and defeated the
Vijayanagara forces led by Ramaraya, Krishnadevaraya's son-in-law, at the
Battle of Talikota.
Sacking of the City: The city was sacked, and its buildings, temples, and
palaces were destroyed, with many civilians massacred.
Fragmentation:
After this defeat, the empire fragmented into smaller regions ruled by Nayakas,
former military governors, and eventually came to an end in the mid-17th
century.
The Mughals
Background:
Decline of the Delhi Sultanate
By the early 1500s, the Delhi Sultanate was weakening.
Several
small kingdoms were fighting for control, and the central power was unstable.
This created an opportunity for outside rulers to invade and take over northern
India.
Babur
·
Babur
was a Turkic-Mongol ruler from Samarkand (in modern-day Uzbekistan).
·
He
was a descendant of Timur (Taimur) and Genghis Khan.
·
After
being driven out of Central Asia, Babur turned his attention to India.
·
He
was a brilliant military strategist, using gunpowder, cannons, and matchlock
guns, which were new in Indian warfare.
1. First Battle of Panipat (1526)
Fought
between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi (the last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate).
Babur’s army used advanced weapons, like field artillery, to win.
This
battle is called the First Battle of Panipat.
Result: The Delhi Sultanate ended, and Babur founded the Mughal Empire.
Babur’s
Rule in India
2. Baburnama – His Autobiography
Babur
wrote a famous book called Baburnama or “Memoirs of Babur”.
It tells us a lot about his life, his thoughts, and what India was like in the
1500s.
He
was:
Interested in poetry, architecture, nature, and birds.
Curious
and intelligent, but also a brutal conqueror.
3. Babur, the Conqueror
He
often slaughtered entire cities after victory.
Built “towers of skulls” from the bodies of those he defeated.
He
enslaved women and children from the places he conquered.
4. Babur’s View of India
He
missed Central Asia, saying India had “few charms.”
But he stayed in India because it had:
Wealth
(gold and silver),
A healthy climate (especially in the rainy season),
Skilled
craftsmen and workers.
Because of India’s riches and potential, he decided to stay and build an
empire.
5.
After Babur: Struggle for Control
Humayun (Babur’s Son)
After
Babur died in 1530, his son Humayun became emperor.
He was not as strong as Babur and lost much territory.
Sher
Shah Suri (Afghan Ruler)
Took advantage of Humayun’s weakness and established the Sur Empire.
Ruled
large parts of north India and introduced many reforms, including:
Better roads, Postal system, Revenue system.
Although
successful, his empire didn’t last long.
Hemu and the Second Battle of Panipat (1556)
Who
was Hemu?
Hemu was a skilled military leader and wazir (chief minister) under the Suri
Empire.
He
defeated Mughal forces and captured Delhi, declaring himself king under the
name Hemchandra Vikramaditya.
The
Battle
·
Soon after, Akbar (Babur’s grandson) attacked him in the Second Battle of
Panipat.
·
Hemu
was injured in battle and captured.
·
He
was beheaded by Akbar and the Mughals reclaimed Delhi.
Akbar –
The Great Mughal Emperor
Time Period: 1556–1605 CE
1.
Early Life and Rise to Power
Akbar
became emperor at the age of 13 in 1556 after the sudden death of his father,
Humayun.
His early rule involved military conquests to expand Mughal control across the Indian Subcontinent.
Akbar
was guided by Bairam Khan, a trusted general, in his early years.
2.
A Ruler of Contrasts
In
his early rule, Akbar followed the brutal policies of earlier rulers.
For
example, during the siege of Chittorgarh, he showed no mercy:
After
five months of battle, Mughal forces captured the fort.
Around
30,000 civilians were massacred.
Many
Rajput women committed jauhar (self-immolation to avoid capture).
Temples
were destroyed, and survivors were enslaved.
He
believed:
> “A monarch should be ever intent on conquest, otherwise his enemies rise
in arms against him.”
3.
A Change in Thinking
As
he matured, Akbar’s ideas changed. He began promoting religious tolerance.
He
said:
> “Formerly I persecuted men into conformity with my faith… As I grew in
knowledge, I was overwhelmed with shame.”
He
realized that forcing religion on others was wrong and against Islam itself.
4.
Policies of Tolerance and Peace
Sulh-i-Kul (Peace with All)
A
key idea introduced by Akbar, meaning tolerance of all religions.
Encouraged
respect for Hindus, Jains, Sikhs, and Christians.
Abolished
Jizya
He
removed the jizya tax, which had been placed on non-Muslims.
Marriage
Alliances
He
married Rajput princesses to build alliances and gain loyalty from regional
kingdoms.
Interfaith
Dialogues
Invited
scholars of different faiths to his court to discuss philosophy and religion.
5.
Promotion of Arts and Knowledge
Though
illiterate, Akbar loved literature, art, music, and architecture.
He
built a "House of Translation" at Fatehpur Sikri where:
Sanskrit
texts were translated into Persian.
These
included: The Mahabharata (Razmnama in Persian), The Ramayana (with
176 miniature paintings), The Bhagavad Gita, The Panchatantra
6.
Mughal Art and Architecture Flourish
Under Akbar and his descendants, Mughal India saw a golden age of art and
architecture.
His
son Jahangir and grandson Shah Jahan continued this legacy.
Famous
Creations:
·
Humayun’s
Tomb (Delhi)
·
Red
Forts in Delhi and Agra
·
Taj
Mahal (by Shah Jahan) – one of the greatest architectural marvels in the world
·
Flourishing
of miniature paintings, calligraphy, and Indian classical music
7.
Final Years and Legacy
Akbar
ruled for almost 50 years (1556–1605).
In
his later years, he led more military campaigns in:
Kashmir,
Sindh, the Deccan, and Afghanistan.
His
rule brought: Stability, Cultural richness, A legacy of
tolerance and strong administration
Aurangzeb – The Last
Powerful Mughal Emperor
Reign: 1658–1707 CE (49 years)
1.
Struggle for the Throne
In 1657, Emperor Shah Jahan fell seriously ill.
He
wanted his eldest son Dara Shikoh to become emperor.
However,
Aurangzeb, his younger son:
Defeated
Dara Shikoh in battle and executed him.
Sent
Dara’s severed head to Shah Jahan.
Arrested
and executed another brother and sent the third into exile.
Imprisoned Shah Jahan in Agra Fort, where he remained until his death.
Aurangzeb
crowned himself emperor in 1658, and took the title "Alamgir"
(meaning "Conqueror of the World").
2.
Military Expansion
Aurangzeb
was a brilliant military strategist.
He
expanded the Mughal Empire to its largest size, especially in the Deccan (South
India).
But
his rule also faced many rebellions, which he spent most of his later years
fighting.
Campaigns
in the Deccan
The last 25 years of his life were spent constantly at war in the south.
These
long wars:
Exhausted
the treasury (money of the empire).
Weakened
the administration.
Made
it harder to control the vast empire.
3.
Religious Policies
Aurangzeb was a strict Sunni Muslim and lived a very simple and religious life.
He
banned music and dance in his court (unlike Akbar).
He brought back jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) and also imposed a pilgrimage tax
on Hindus.
Destruction
of Temples
In
1669, Aurangzeb sent orders to:
Destroy
temples and schools of other religions.
Stop
their teachings and festivals.
Many
temples were destroyed, including those in: Banaras
(Varanasi), Mathura, Somnath, Also Jain temples and Sikh
gurdwaras
4.
Religious Intolerance
He
not only targeted Hindus, but also:
Persecuted
Sufis, who were part of a mystical form of Islam.
Mistreated
Muslims of other sects.
Discriminated
against Parsis (followers of Zoroastrianism from Persia).
Was
It Political or Religious?
Some
historians say Aurangzeb did this to strengthen his rule (political reason).
Others
argue it was also because of his personal religious beliefs.
His firmans (royal orders) clearly show he believed it was his religious duty
to destroy “infidel” temples.
5.
Decline: After His Rule
When
Aurangzeb died in 1707, the empire:
Was
too large and too weak to manage.
Had
no strong leadership.
Faced
more rebellions from Marathas, Rajputs, Sikhs, and others.
This marked the beginning of the fall of the Mughal Empire.
Resistance to the Mughals
Although the Mughals built a large empire, many
groups resisted their rule.
Rebellions against the exploitation, taxes, and
oppression by Mughal officers weakened the empire over time.
These resistance movements came from peasants,
tribal communities, and later, regional kingdoms.
Peasant Rebellions
Who were they?
Peasants were common farmers and villagers who
worked on the land.
They often faced high taxes, harsh treatment,
and corruption by Mughal officers.
The Jat Uprising (17th Century)
The Jats were peasants from present-day:
Western Uttar Pradesh
Haryana
Eastern Rajasthan
In one famous incident, they:
Killed an oppressive Mughal officer.
Fought a large battle with 20,000 men against
the Mughal army.
Their leader was killed, and the rebellion was
crushed, but it left a strong impression.
Tribal Resistance
Who were the tribal groups?
India had many tribal communities that lived in
forests, hills, and remote areas.
Examples include:
Bhils
Gonds
Santhals
Kochs
Why did they resist?
The Mughals and earlier rulers tried to:
Annex their lands (take control).
Impose taxes on them.
Force them to join the empire.
What happened?
Some tribes were:
Defeated or slowly brought under control.
Integrated into the empire through negotiation
or war.
But many in difficult-to-reach areas (like
forests and hills) remained independent or partly free.
Impact on the Mughal Empire
- These repeated rebellions weakened the empire.
- Cost the Mughal treasury money and troops.
- Created instability in local regions.
- Reduced the control of Mughal rulers over far-away provinces.
- Over time, local rulers and groups began to assert independence, contributing to the decline of Mughal power.
Rani Durgavati – The Brave Queen of Central India
1. Who
Was Rani Durgavati?
Rani Durgavati was a valiant and wise queen of the Garha Kingdom,
one of the Gond kingdoms located in central India.
She is remembered as one of India’s great warrior queens and a
symbol of courage and regional pride.
2. Her
Rule and Achievements
Rani Durgavati ruled wisely and brought prosperity to her kingdom.
She maintained:
An army of 20,000 soldiers
A force of 1,000 war elephants
She defeated many enemies and successfully protected her kingdom
from several invasions.
3.
Battle Against the Mughals (1564)
In 1564, a general sent by Emperor Akbar attacked her kingdom.
Though her army was outnumbered and lacked advanced weapons, she did
not give up.
Rani Durgavati personally led her soldiers into battle.
She was wounded in the fight but refused to surrender.
4. Heroic Sacrifice
To avoid capture, she took her own life on the battlefield.
She was just 40 years old at the time.
Her bravery and sacrifice made her a symbol of resistance and pride
for her people.
Surge of the Rajputs and the Ahoms
1. Rise of the Rajputs
Location & Heritage:
The Rajputs lived in northwest India and inherited a proud tradition of valor from earlier dynasties like the Pratiharas, who had resisted Arab invasions.
Struggle & Resistance:
They constantly defended their lands from foreign invaders and rebuilt their kingdoms after the Khilji conquest.
Key Rajput Clans:
Two major Rajput clans emerged in:
Mewar
Marwar
Important Rajput Leaders
Rana Sanga (Early 16th Century):
- Unified several Rajput clans.
- Fought many battles against the Delhi Sultans.
- Was defeated by Babur at the Battle of Khanwa (1527).
- Maharana Pratap (Ruler of Mewar):
- Refused to accept Mughal rule.
- Fought the Battle of Haldighati (1576) against Akbar’s army.
- Though the Mughals had the upper hand, he escaped and continued guerrilla warfare.
- Lived in tough conditions in the Aravalli Hills, supported by the Bhils, who were expert archers and knew the terrain well.
Durga Das Rathore (Marwar):
- Rebelled against the Mughals during Aurangzeb's reign.
- Fought to keep Jodhpur independent.
- Note: Some Rajput states allied with the Mughals through marriage and diplomacy, but Mewar and Marwar remained defiant.
2. The Ahoms of Assam
Origin:
The Ahoms migrated from present-day Myanmar in the 13th century to the Brahmaputra Valley.
Administration – The Paik System:
- Every man gave labor or military service in return for land.
- Helped build infrastructure and maintain a strong army without keeping a permanent force.
Cultural Contribution:
- Assimilated local culture.
- Promoted agriculture and religious diversity.
- Contributed to Assam’s rich traditions.
Ahom Resistance to Mughals
Mughal Invasion:
- Under Aurangzeb, the Mughals briefly captured the Ahom capital, Garhgaon.
- Battle of Saraighat (1671):
- Fought on the Brahmaputra River near Guwahati.
- Ahom general Lachit Borphukan led 10,000 men against a Mughal force of 30,000.
- Using guerrilla tactics and knowledge of the terrain, the Ahoms defeated the Mughals and preserved their independence.
- Founded Sikhism in Punjab.
- Preached equality, compassion, and belief in One God (Ik Onkār).
- His followers came to be known as Sikhs.
- Later Sikh Gurus and Mughal Conflict
- Tortured and killed by Emperor Jahangir for allegedly supporting his rebellious son.
- His death marked the beginning of militarization in Sikhism.
- Introduced martial training.
- Formed a Sikh army and fought several battles against the Mughals.
- Opposed religious persecution.
- Refused to convert to Islam under Aurangzeb.
- Publicly executed in Chandni Chowk, Delhi, after torture.
- Founded the Khalsa in 1699 — a brotherhood of saint-soldiers.
- The Khalsa stood for justice, equality, and defence of the faith.
- Fought many battles against Mughal forces.
- As the Mughal Empire declined, Sikh confederacies emerged in Punjab.
- Ranjit Singh united them by the early 19th century.
- He built a strong Sikh Empire with:
- Efficient administration
- Religious tolerance
- Military and diplomatic skills
- His empire included Punjab and parts of Kashmir, resisting British expansion till the mid-19th century.
- Lands assigned to nobles (iqtadars) to collect taxes.
- Taxes were mainly used for military upkeep.
- Iqtas were not hereditary.
- Peasants bore heavy tax burdens; revenue collection could be harsh.
- Introduced by Akbar.
- Mansabdars were ranked officers.
- They had to maintain a certain number of soldiers, horses, elephants, etc.
- Paid through land grants (jagirs) — hence called jagirdars.
- Allowed quick military mobilization without a standing army.
- Raja Todar Mal, Akbar’s finance minister:
- Conducted land surveys.
- Fixed crop-wise revenue based on yield and prices.
- Improved revenue collection and strengthened administration.
- Akbar promoted tolerance, but:
- Non-Muslims rarely exceeded one-third of officials.
- Foreign-origin Muslims were preferred over Indian Muslims.
- India had a strong agricultural base. Most people depended on farming.
- Main crops: Rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, spices, cotton, silk, wool, timber, and jute.
- Irrigation improved, allowing farmers to grow more than one crop.
- Rulers collected land revenue (taxes) — usually one-fifth of the crop, but sometimes even half.
- Famines occurred; people suffered if rulers didn’t provide help.
- Artisans made many products: textiles, weapons, ornaments, utensils, and tools.
- Shipbuilding improved, helping both river and sea trade.
- Important trade cities: Calicut, Mangalore, Surat, Masulipatnam, Hooghly.
- India exported many goods but imported very little — mainly silk, horses, metals, luxury items.
- The hundi system (early banking method) helped traders transfer money safely.
- Coins of different metals and values were used.
- Mughals introduced:
- Rupaya (silver coin)
- Dam (copper coin)
- Many peasants had to give away much of their crops as tax.
- Some lost land and became bonded labourers (forced to work to repay debt).
- Craftspeople and workers also faced economic difficulties.
- The Delhi Sultanate and Mughal rulers built:
- Roads
- Bridges
- Irrigation canals
- New cities
- Despite political changes, temple economies and guilds (shreṇis) helped keep local economies strong.
- Jatis (professional communities) played an important role in society.
- People from different religions and communities lived together, mostly peacefully and interdependent.
- Rulers and communities supported art, literature, and traditions.
- A shared cultural heritage developed over time.
- Even during hard times, Indian society showed resilience through creativity and values.
- Frequent wars led to population displacement.
- Wealth was unequal — mostly held by kings, nobles, and rich merchants.
- Sometimes there were clashes over religion, especially when sacred places were destroyed.
0 Comments