3. The Rise of the Marathas

1. Who were the Marathas?

The Marathas were a people of the Deccan plateau, largely in present-day Maharashtra, united by their language Marathi and a shared culture. Their rise in the 17th century marked the emergence of a strong regional power that challenged the Mughal Empire. Marathi had a long literary tradition, enriched by saints of the Bhakti movement who preached in the language of the people.

Politically, before the Marathas, the Deccan was ruled by the Yadavas of Devagiri (13th–14th century), but later the Delhi Sultans and Deccan Sultanates gained control. The Marathas, however, preserved their cultural identity, which became the foundation of their future political expansion.

2. Cultural Background – Role of Bhakti Movement

The Bhakti saints of Maharashtra played a central role in creating a spiritual and cultural unity. Saints such as Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Tukaram, Ramdas spread messages of devotion, equality, and ethical living. They translated sacred texts like the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita into Marathi, making religion accessible to ordinary people.

This cultural environment helped develop a sense of collective identity among the Marathi-speaking population. The saints not only created spiritual awakening but also encouraged social organisation and political awareness, which later supported the rise of the Marathas under Shivaji.

3. Shivaji’s Early Life and Vision

Shivaji Bhonsle was born in 1630 at the fort of Shivneri. His father Shahji was a military officer in the service of the Bijapur Sultanate, while his mother Jijabai raised him in Pune, instilling in him deep devotion, courage, and political vision. The region was constantly threatened by the Mughals, Bijapur, and Golkonda, which caused hardship to common people.

Shivaji, inspired by the idea of Swarājya (self-rule), began to capture small forts and territories from the age of 16. His goal was not just political power but to create an independent state that promoted justice, security, and welfare.

4. Military Strategy – Guerrilla Warfare and Navy

Shivaji was a master strategist who developed the technique of guerrilla warfare. He used the rugged Sahyadri mountains and dense forests to launch sudden attacks, loot enemy camps, and retreat quickly. This gave him an advantage over much larger armies.

Shivaji also realised the importance of controlling the western coast. He built a strong navy and coastal forts such as Sindhudurg and Vijaydurg, which allowed him to protect trade routes, resist European dominance, and safeguard his kingdom.

5. Important Events in Shivaji’s Career

  • Afzal Khan Incident (1659): Afzal Khan, sent by Bijapur to crush Shivaji, was killed by him in a dramatic encounter at Pratapgad. This victory made Shivaji a formidable power.

  • Shaista Khan Raid (1663): Mughal general Shaista Khan was stationed in Pune. Shivaji carried out a daring night raid, wounding Khan and forcing him to flee.

  • Sack of Surat (1664 & 1670): Shivaji attacked the wealthy Mughal port city twice, collecting immense wealth but carefully avoiding desecration of temples or harm to civilians.

  • Agra Escape (1666): Invited by Aurangzeb to Agra, Shivaji was insulted and kept under house arrest. He escaped by hiding in baskets meant for gifts.

  • Coronation at Raigad (1674): Shivaji declared himself Chhatrapati and performed a Vedic coronation, asserting the independence of the Maratha kingdom.

  • Southern Expedition (1677–78): Shivaji extended Maratha power into Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, giving his kingdom greater influence.

6. After Shivaji – Succession and Expansion

After Shivaji’s death in 1680, his son Sambhaji became ruler. Sambhaji fought bravely against Aurangzeb but was captured and executed in 1689. Leadership passed to Rajaram, who shifted the capital to Gingee Fort in Tamil Nadu.

After Rajaram’s death, his widow Tarabai took charge. She organised resistance against the Mughals and expanded Maratha influence northwards. Later, power gradually shifted to the Peshwas (prime ministers), especially under Bajirao I (1720–40), who carried Maratha armies deep into North India, reaching as far as Delhi and Lahore.

By the mid-18th century, the Marathas were the dominant power in India, although they suffered a massive defeat at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). Despite recovering afterwards under Madhavrao and Mahadji Shinde, they were eventually defeated by the British in the three Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775–1818).

7. Administration under Shivaji

Shivaji established an efficient and disciplined administration:

  • Ashta Pradhan Mandal (Council of Eight):

    • Peshwa (Prime Minister),

    • Amatya (Finance),

    • Sachiv (Secretary),

    • Mantri (Intelligence),

    • Senapati (Army),

    • Sumant (Foreign Affairs),

    • Nyayadhish (Justice),

    • Panditrao (Religion).

  • Officials were salaried, not hereditary.

  • Revenue was collected directly from peasants, reducing middlemen.

  • Introduced Chauth (25%) and Sardeshmukhi (10%) on outside territories.

  • Provided pensions to soldiers’ families and maintained discipline in the army.

8. Military Organisation

  • Army divided into infantry, cavalry, navy.

  • Cavalry types: Bargirs (state-provided horse & equipment), Shiledars (self-equipped soldiers).

  • Extensive use of forts as centres of power. The Adnyapatra (official manual) stressed the importance of forts for survival against large enemies.

  • Navy under leaders like Kanhoji Angre resisted European powers and defended the Konkan coast.

9. Cultural Revival and Society

  • Promoted Marathi & Sanskrit, encouraged local literature.

  • Introduced Modi script for administration.

  • His seal carried the message: “This seal of Shivaji grows in splendour like the moon… for the welfare of the people.”

  • Encouraged trade with Arabia, Africa, and Southeast Asia. Opposed European slave trade.

  • Women leaders: Ahilyabai Holkar (built temples, ghats, promoted weaving), Tarabai (led military resistance).

  • In the south, Thanjavur Marathas like Serfoji II promoted arts, medicine, and printing.

10. Legacy of the Marathas

  • Ended the monopoly of Mughal power and created the largest Indian empire before the British.

  • Built a strong military tradition (forts, navy, guerrilla tactics).

  • Promoted self-rule (Swarājya) and revived Indian cultural pride.

  • Ultimately defeated by the British, but their resistance made the British conquest longer and harder.



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3. The Rise of the Marathas

1. Historical Background & Regional Identity

  • The Marathas belonged to the Deccan plateau, mainly present-day Maharashtra.

  • Their language was Marathi, which had an old and rich literary tradition.

  • Though political control shifted (Yadavas, Delhi Sultanate, Bahmanis, Deccan Sultanates), Marathi culture remained alive.

  • By the 17th century, this cultural identity combined with political ambition to create a new power — the Maratha state.

2. Cultural Awakening through Bhakti Movement

  • Saints like Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Tukaram, Ramdas preached in Marathi, making religion accessible.

  • They translated key Sanskrit texts (e.g., Bhagavad Gita) into Marathi.

  • The Bhakti saints not only spread spiritual ideas but also encouraged social unity among peasants and common people.

  • This cultural and moral base became the foundation for Shivaji’s Swarājya (self-rule).

3. Shivaji Bhonsle (1630–1680): Founder of Maratha Power

Early Life

  • Born at Shivneri fort in 1630 to Shahji Bhonsle and Jijabai.

  • Jijabai inspired him with stories of epics and devotion to Bhavani.

  • Pune region where he grew up was politically unstable due to conflicts between Mughals and Deccan Sultanates.

  • From youth, he aimed to build a sovereign Maratha kingdom.

Military Career

  • Began capturing forts from the age of 16 — e.g., Torna, Rajgad.

  • Guerrilla warfare: small bands, surprise attacks, retreat into hills — perfectly suited to the Sahyadri terrain.

  • Built a navy to control Konkan coast and resist European dominance.

4. Major Episodes in Shivaji’s Career

  • Afzal Khan (1659): Bijapur general invited to meeting at Pratapgad; Shivaji killed him with a concealed weapon (wagh nakh). Marathas won decisive victory.

  • Shaista Khan (1663): Mughal general settled in Pune; Shivaji’s daring night raid injured him and forced withdrawal.

  • Surat Raids (1664 & 1670): Shivaji plundered the wealthy Mughal port; avoided destroying temples and houses of the poor — selective, disciplined plunder.

  • Agra Incident (1666): Humiliated at Aurangzeb’s court, imprisoned; escaped dramatically hidden in baskets.

  • Coronation (1674): At Raigad, performed Vedic rituals, crowned Chhatrapati. Asserted full sovereignty.

  • Southern Campaigns: Extended influence into Karnataka and south India, showing ambition beyond Maharashtra.

5. After Shivaji: Succession and Expansion

  • Sambhaji (1680–1689): Brave but caught and brutally executed by Aurangzeb.

  • Rajaram (1689–1700): Shifted base to Gingee in Tamil Nadu, continued resistance.

  • Tarabai (1700–1707): Widowed queen who led resistance, kept Maratha power alive.

  • Peshwas (18th c.): Became de facto heads of Maratha confederacy.

    • Bajirao I (1720–40): Expanded northward, famous for swift cavalry campaigns.

    • Nanasaheb Peshwa, Mahadji Shinde, Holkars, Gaekwads, Bhonsles: turned Marathas into a confederacy spreading across India.

6. Marathas as a Pan-Indian Power

  • By mid-18th century, controlled much of central, northern and western India.

  • Reached up to Delhi, even Lahore and Peshawar briefly.

  • 1761: Third Battle of Panipat → huge defeat against Ahmad Shah Abdali.

  • But later revived under Madhavrao and Mahadji Shinde; even restored Mughal emperor in Delhi (1771).

  • Finally, defeated by British in Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775–1818).

  • The British annexed India more from the Marathas than from the Mughals.

7. Administration under Shivaji

  • Ashta Pradhan Mandal (Council of Eight Ministers):

    • Peshwa (Prime Minister), Amatya (Finance), Sachiv (Records), Mantri (Intelligence), Senapati (Army), Sumant (Foreign Affairs), Nyayadhish (Justice), Panditrao (Religion).

  • Officials were salaried, rotated to prevent corruption.

  • Soldiers’ families were supported — widows got pensions, sons got employment.

  • Revenue System:

    • Chauth (25%) and Sardeshmukhi (10%) levied on outside territories.

    • This brought wealth and gradually recognition of Maratha power.

8. Military Organisation

  • Army = Infantry, Cavalry, Navy.

  • Cavalry divided into Bargirs (state-equipped) and Shiledars (self-equipped).

  • Navy controlled Konkan coast, resisted Europeans.

  • Forts (hill forts and sea forts) = backbone of defence and survival.

  • Guerrilla tactics = constant harassment of larger enemies.

9. Society, Economy and Trade

  • Encouraged agriculture and local industry.

  • Promoted trade with ports like Surat, Goa, and overseas trade to Muscat, Malacca.

  • Opposed European slave trade.

  • Built roads, bridges, ferries for connectivity.

10. Cultural Revival

  • Adopted Sanskrit seal emphasising welfare of people.

  • Coins inscribed in Devanagari.

  • Promoted Marathi literature; also used Modi script for administration.

  • Commissioned works like Rajya Vyavahara Kosha (dictionary of official terms).

  • Rebuilt temples, patronised arts and music.

11. Notable Leaders Beyond Shivaji

  • Tarabai: Resisted Mughals, continued Maratha expansion.

  • Ahilyabai Holkar: Ruled Indore wisely for 30 years, built temples, ghats, dharmashalas; promoted Maheshwari weaving.

  • Kanhoji Angre: Admiral of Maratha navy; resisted European dominance; called “pirate” by Europeans but actually a defender of Indian coasts.

  • Thanjavur Marathas: Ekoji (Shivaji’s half-brother) founded dynasty; Serfoji II promoted medicine, printing, Bharatanatyam, and Carnatic music.

12. Legacy of the Marathas

  • First major Indian power to challenge Mughal empire successfully.

  • Created a large confederacy across India before British conquest.

  • Their idea of Swarājya (self-rule) later inspired nationalism.

  • Built strong cultural, military, and administrative traditions.

  • Though defeated by British, they shaped India’s 17th–18th century political map.



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Answers to In text Questions 

1. Analyse how geography (particularly mountains and coastlines) guided Maratha military strategy and state formation.

  • Mountains/hills (the Sahyadris) gave the Marathas defensive high ground ideal for forts and guerrilla tactics. Small, mobile bands could strike larger forces and retreat to rugged forts; forts controlled passes and trade routes, allowing the Marathas to hold territory despite larger invading armies.

  • Coastlines forced the Marathas to think maritime: coastal access gave trade, revenue and naval options, so Shivaji built a navy to protect commerce and to contest European control of the seas. Coastal forts (Sindhudurg, Vijaydurg, etc.) combined with hill forts to secure both land and sea approaches. 

2. Short biography (3–4 paragraphs): Ahilyabai Holkar

  • Ahilyabai Holkar (Holkar family, Indore region) ruled effectively after the death of her husband and son. She governed for thirty years and is remembered for wise, humane administration and a focus on public welfare. She combined religious devotion with practical governance.

  • She sponsored the rebuilding and restoration of important temples and pilgrimage ghats across India (e.g., Kashi Vishwanath and Somnath), demonstrating a commitment to cultural and religious restoration after times of conflict. Her building projects included wells, roads and ghats that helped everyday life and pilgrimage. 

  • Ahilyabai promoted local industry (notably the Maheshwar weaving industry), reviving handicrafts and boosting the local economy. She is celebrated for balancing devotion, public welfare, commerce and administrative competence.

  • Challenge overcome: As a widow and a woman ruler in a turbulent era, she faced the dual challenge of securing political authority and protecting her state against external threats and internal instability; she overcame these by strong moral leadership, patronage, and competent administration. 

3. If you could visit one Maratha fort today — Raigad (choice & why), with history/architecture/strategic importance

  • Choice & reason: I’d choose Raigad because it is Shivaji’s coronation site (1674) and served as the political and symbolic capital of early Maratha sovereignty.

  • History: Raigad was chosen as the fortified capital where Shivaji was formally crowned. It functioned as his administrative and ceremonial center. 

  • Architecture & features: It is a hill-fort with steep natural escarpments, fortified ramparts, palace ruins, water cisterns and defensive gateways — designed to be defensible and self-sustaining. Its elevation and steep approaches made it hard for large armies to take by direct assault, ideal for the Marathas’ defensive strategy. 

  • Strategic importance: Raigad’s position allowed command of surrounding territory, communications with other forts, and safe refuge for leadership — symbolically it anchored the idea of Swarājya.

4. What does “The British took India from the Marathas more than from the Mughals or any other power” mean? Evidence from the chapter.

  • Meaning: By the late 18th/early 19th century the Marathas were the principal pan-Indian power controlling vast territories across central, western and northern India. The British consolidated power by defeating the Marathas in a series of Anglo-Maratha wars and by absorbing Maratha territories — so in effect, much of India passed from Maratha hands to British control. 

  • Evidence: The chapter shows Maratha territorial reach (map showing their 1759 extent), the recapture of Delhi by Mahadji Shinde (1771), and the sequence of Anglo-Maratha wars (1775–1818) culminating in the end of Maratha power in 1818. It explicitly states the British took India more from the Marathas than from Mughals.

5. Compare Shivaji’s and later Marathas’ treatment of religious places/people of other faiths – evidence from the chapter.

  • Shivaji’s approach: Shivaji avoided desecration when sacking Surat and spared religious sites and some civilians (e.g., the house of Mohandas Parekh). He forbade the Dutch slave trade in his domains. These acts show he respected religious sites and human life even while fighting. 

  • Later Marathas: They revived Hindu institutions (rebuilt temples at places like Puri) and promoted Marathi and Sanskrit culture, but broadly the chapter emphasises they respected other faiths and people — cultural revival was not necessarily sectarian persecution. Examples include patronage in Thanjavur (a syncretic cultural sphere) and Ahilyabai’s work across India. 

6. Why were forts “the core of the state”? How did forts help Marathas survive against larger enemies?

  • Forts were defensive anchors: each fort controlled routes, water sources, granaries and could shelter troops for long sieges. Forts on hills were hard to assault and allowed small forces to resist larger armies using terrain advantage and supply caches. The Marathas used an extensive network of forts plus guerrilla mobility to survive protracted campaigns (Aurangzeb’s long Deccan campaign is a prime example where forts preserved Maratha endurance). The Ādnyāpatra explicitly states forts built the kingdom and ensured survival against invasions. 

7. Design a Maratha coin (symbols + explanation)

  • Obverse (front): Central inscription in Devanagari: “Swarājya — Shri Raja Shivā Chhatrapati” (or the ruler’s name), with a small seal motif inspired by Shivaji’s Sanskrit seal (welfare of the people). Surround the central text with a tiny saffron flag icon at top. 

  • Reverse: A stylised hill-fort silhouette + a small coastal ship motif (to honour forts and the navy), plus a wheat-sheaf or plough icon (symbolising agrarian prosperity). Along the edge add the year (in Saka/AD) and a short inscription acknowledging protection of traders.

  • Rationale: The coin uses Devanagari and Shivaji-style seal to assert indigenous rule and cultural identity; a fort and ship celebrate key Maratha strengths (forts + navy); agrarian sign honours peasantry and economy. The design echoes historic Maratha coinage that combined Devanagari and Persian scripts in later examples (Gaṇapatī-Pantapradhān rupee) but emphasises native script and symbols.

8. Which was the most important Maratha contribution to Indian history? (short paragraph with examples)

  • Answer (opinion with chapter support): The Marathas’ most important contribution was that they broke the political monopoly of the Mughals, created a genuinely pan-Indian Hindu-regional polity and revived political confidence in Indian self-rule (the ideal of Swarājya). Shivaji’s example — forts, a navy, administrative reforms, and cultural assertion — provided a living model that later leaders expanded across the subcontinent. Their resistance to the Mughals and their pan-Indian expansion in the 18th century reshaped political maps until the British arrived; in short, they changed who could rule India and inspired future ideas of independence.