THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

Chapter 1: The French Revolution

Introduction

The French Revolution began in 1789 and is seen as a turning point in world history. It brought political, social, economic, and cultural changes that inspired revolutions across the world. It ended monarchy in France, introduced ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity, and encouraged democratic values.

French Society in the Late 18th Century

• In 1774, Louis XVI became the king of France. He belonged to the Bourbon dynasty.
• He was married to Marie Antoinette, the daughter of the Austrian emperor.
• At that time, France was facing a deep financial crisis.
• The reason was that France had spent heavily on wars, especially the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) and support for American colonies’ independence (1775–1783).
• To maintain the army, the court, and to pay for loans, the state treasury was empty.
• The king planned to increase taxes to solve the crisis.

Division of Society

French society was divided into three estates:

1. First Estate – The Clergy (church officials)

Owned 10% of land.

Collected tithes (a tax from peasants).

Exempted from paying state taxes.

2. Second Estate – The Nobility

Owned the most land.

Enjoyed feudal privileges (like collecting feudal dues from peasants).

Also exempted from taxes.

Held top posts in government, army, and church.

3. Third Estate – Everyone else (peasants, farmers, workers, middle class)

90% of the population were peasants.

Paid taxes to the state, feudal dues to nobles, and tithes to the church.

Also paid indirect taxes (on salt, tobacco, bread, etc.).

Within the Third Estate:

Peasants – burdened with feudal dues and tithes.

Artisans, servants, small peasants – poor, struggling for survival.

Middle class (bourgeoisie) – traders, lawyers, doctors, teachers. They were educated and influenced by Enlightenment ideas.

👉 So, only the Third Estate carried the burden of taxation, while the First and Second enjoyed privileges.

The Struggle to Survive

• The population of France grew rapidly in the 18th century, leading to a rise in demand for food grains.
• But production did not increase equally, so prices rose.
• The wages of workers did not keep up with the rising prices.
• There were frequent food shortages, which made life miserable for peasants and workers.
• The middle class, however, grew stronger due to trade and industry. They became the new leaders of change.

A Growing Middle Class Envisions Change

• The middle class had wealth but no social or political privileges.
• They wanted equality and freedom like in America.
• Their ideas were influenced by Enlightenment philosophers:
• John Locke – wrote Two Treatises of Government; rejected divine rights of kings; argued for a government based on people’s consent.
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau – wrote The Social Contract; argued that government should follow the general will of the people.
• Montesquieu – wrote The Spirit of the Laws; proposed division of power between legislature, executive, and judiciary.
• These ideas spread through books, pamphlets, and discussions.
• They created awareness that a change was possible and necessary.

The Outbreak of the Revolution

• By 1789, the financial crisis worsened. The king called a meeting of the Estates General (a body representing all three estates) on 5 May 1789 at Versailles.
• Traditionally, each estate had one vote, which meant the First and Second estates could outvote the Third.
• The Third Estate demanded voting by head (each member one vote), but the king rejected it.
• Angered, the Third Estate members walked out and declared themselves the National Assembly.
• On 20 June 1789, they gathered in the indoor tennis court and took the Tennis Court Oath, promising not to separate until a new constitution was made.
• Meanwhile, conditions worsened in Paris:
• On 14 July 1789, the people stormed the Bastille prison (a symbol of tyranny).
• Peasants attacked nobles’ houses in villages, looted grain, and destroyed records of feudal dues.
• This marked the start of the French Revolution.

France Becomes a Constitutional Monarchy

• On 4 August 1789, the National Assembly abolished feudal privileges and tithes.
• In 1791, the Constitution of France was completed:
• It limited the powers of the king.
• Legislative power was given to the National Assembly (indirectly elected).
• Only active citizens (men above 25 who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days’ wages) could vote.
• Women and poor men were excluded.
• This made France a constitutional monarchy.

Everyday Life: Symbols of Revolution

The Revolution introduced new symbols to express freedom and equality:

The broken chain – freedom.

The bundle of rods – unity is strength.

The eye within a triangle – knowledge.

Red Phrygian cap – freedom.

Blue-white-red tricolour – national flag.

Law tablet – equality before law.

France Abolishes Monarchy and Becomes a Republic

• Other European monarchs saw the Revolution as a threat.
• In 1792, France declared war on Austria and Prussia.
• War brought shortages and high prices, which angered people.
• On 10 August 1792, citizens attacked the palace of Tuileries.
• The king was imprisoned and later executed in January 1793.
• France was declared a Republic.
• Power was given to a new elected assembly, the Convention.
• Voting rights were extended to all men aged 21 and above (universal male suffrage).

The Reign of Terror (1793–1794)

The Republic was led by Maximilian Robespierre.

He followed a strict policy of control and punishment to protect the revolution.

Known as the Reign of Terror:

• Nobles, clergy, and even ordinary people suspected of being enemies were executed by the guillotine.
• Maximum ceiling was set on wages and prices.
• Rationing of food was introduced.
• Peasants had to sell grain at fixed prices.
• Slavery was abolished in French colonies.
• In July 1794, Robespierre was arrested and executed.

The Directory Rules France

• After Robespierre, a new constitution was introduced in 1795.
• It gave power to two councils.
• To avoid concentration of power, an executive body of five directors was created.
• But the Directory was weak, corrupt, and faced political conflicts.
• In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup and became the ruler of France.

The Revolution and Women

• Women were active participants in the revolution.
• They demanded education, equal rights, and the right to vote.
• Women formed clubs, like the Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women.
• They raised issues like control of prices and quality of bread.
• But in 1793, women’s clubs were banned by the government.
• In 1946, women in France finally got the right to vote.

The Abolition of Slavery

• France had colonies in the Caribbean (Martinique, Guadeloupe, San Domingo) where slaves worked on sugar, coffee, and cotton plantations.
• The French Revolution abolished slavery in 1794.
• But slavery was restored by Napoleon in 1804 to meet the demand for sugar.
• It was finally abolished in 1848.

The Revolution and Everyday Life

• The Revolution brought new ideas and practices:
• A new republican calendar started in 1792.
• Instead of the king, the Nation was personified as a female figure (Marianne).
• New hymns, oaths, festivals, and the tricolour flag celebrated the Revolution.
• The aim was to create a sense of collective identity among French citizens.

Conclusion

The French Revolution ended absolute monarchy and spread ideas of equality, liberty, and fraternity.

It inspired movements in Europe, Asia, and Africa.

The Revolution showed that people could change society through struggle.

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Intext Questions with Answers

Page 5

Q1. What do you understand by the term ‘Old Regime’?

Ans. The term Old Regime is used for the political and social system in France before 1789. Under this system, society was divided into three estates, where the First and Second Estates enjoyed privileges while the Third Estate carried the burden of taxes.

Page 7

Q2. Look at the graph (Fig. 1). What do you understand about the rise in population in France and its effect on common people?

Ans. The population of France rose rapidly in the 18th century, but food production did not keep pace. This led to higher prices, scarcity of bread, and hardship for peasants and workers whose wages did not increase much.

Page 13

Q3. What were the main ideas put forward by philosophers such as John Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau?

Ans.

John Locke – rejected the divine rights of kings; believed government should be based on the consent of the people.

Montesquieu – proposed separation of powers into legislature, executive, and judiciary.

Rousseau – emphasized a government based on the general will of the people.

Page 17

Q4. What is meant by the term ‘subsistence crisis’?

Ans. A subsistence crisis refers to a situation where basic means of livelihood (food, shelter, clothing) are difficult to access. In 18th-century France, it was caused by rising population, poor harvests, high prices, and stagnant wages.

Page 23

Q5. Which groups of French society benefited from the Revolution? Which groups were forced to relinquish power? Which groups were disappointed with the outcome of the Revolution?

Ans.

Benefited: Peasants, workers, middle class (they got equality before law, end of feudal dues).

Lost power: Nobles and clergy (privileges abolished).

Disappointed: Women, poor men, and slaves (they did not get equal political rights immediately).

Page 24

Q6. Describe the legacy of the French Revolution.

Ans.

It ended monarchy and feudal privileges.

Spread ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity.

Inspired people in Europe, Asia, Africa to fight for democracy and freedom.

It showed that people can change society through struggle.

Exercise Questions (NCERT Textbook – Page 24–25)

Q1. Describe the circumstances leading to the outbreak of the French Revolution.

Ans.

France faced a financial crisis due to wars and extravagant court expenses.

The king planned to increase taxes, but only the Third Estate had to pay.

Rising population led to food scarcity and high prices.

Peasants and workers faced misery; the middle class demanded rights.

Enlightenment thinkers spread new ideas of equality and liberty.

The Estates General meeting (1789) led to conflict and formation of the National Assembly.

The storming of the Bastille (14 July 1789) marked the start of the Revolution.

Q2. Which groups of French society benefited from the Revolution? Which groups were forced to relinquish power? Which groups were disappointed with the outcome?

Ans.

Benefited: Peasants, workers, and the middle class (privileges ended, equality before law introduced).

Relinquished power: Nobles and clergy (lost feudal rights, privileges, and land control).

Disappointed: Women, poor men, and slaves (excluded from voting rights initially).

Q3. Describe the legacy of the French Revolution for the peoples of the world during the 19th and 20th centuries.

Ans.

Spread ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity worldwide.

Inspired struggles against monarchy and colonialism.

Encouraged demand for democracy, universal adult franchise, and human rights.

Its ideas influenced later revolutions in Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin America.

Q4. Draw up a list of democratic rights we enjoy today whose origins can be traced to the French Revolution.

Ans.

Right to equality before law.

Right to freedom of speech and expression.

Right to vote (universal adult franchise).

Right to freedom from exploitation (end of slavery/forced labour).

Right to property (protected by law).

Right to education.

Q5. Would you agree with the view that the message of universal rights was beset with contradictions? Explain.

Ans. Yes.

The French Revolution proclaimed universal rights, but in reality:

Only men above 25 who paid taxes were given voting rights.

Women were denied political rights and could not vote.

Slavery continued in French colonies until 1848.

👉 So, though the Revolution gave the idea of universal rights, it did not apply equally to all groups.

Q6. How would you explain the rise of Napoleon?

Ans.

After the fall of Robespierre, the Directory was set up in 1795, but it was weak and corrupt.

Political instability continued.

People wanted a strong leader to bring order.

In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte seized power in a coup and became ruler of France.

His leadership skills, military successes, and promises of stability helped him rise quickly.

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