GEOGRAPHY CHAPTER 5 MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES

 CLASS-X

GEOGRAPHY    CHAPTER 5

MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES

Mineral:

Geologists define mineral as a “homogeneous, naturally occurring substance with a definable internal structure.” They have physical and chemical properties by which they can be identified.

Rocks are combinations or aggregates of minerals in varying proportions. Some rocks consist of a single mineral, e.g., limestone while most rocks consist of several minerals.

The term ‘ore’ is used to describe an accumulation of any mineral mixed with other elements.

Minerals generally occur in the following forms:

Veins and lodes. In igneous and metamorphic rocks minerals may occur in the cracks, faults or joints by getting solidified in them. The smaller occurrences are called veins and the larger lodes, e.g., metallic minerals like tin, copper, zinc and lead, etc. are found in lodes and veins.

In sedimentary rocks minerals occur in beds or layers. They are formed as a result of deposition, accumulation and concentration in horizontal strata. Some sedimentary minerals are formed as a result of evaporation, especially in arid regions, e.g., gypsum, potash and salt.

Another mode of formation involves decomposition of surface rocks and the removal of soluble contents, leaving a residual mass of weathered material containing ores. Bauxite is formed this way.

Placer deposits. Certain minerals occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floors and the base of hills, e.g., gold, silver, tin and platinum. These are called placer deposits and contain minerals which are not corroded by water.

Ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals, e.g., common salt, magnesium and bromide are largely derived from the ocean waters. The ocean beds are rich in manganese nodules.

Four types of iron ores are:

Magnetite, Hematite, Siderite and Limonite.

Two best ores are:

Magnetite—It is the finest iron ore available with upto 70% iron content. It has excellent magnetic qualities and is especially valuable in the electrical industry.

Hematite—It is the most important industrial iron ore in terms of quantity used. It has 50-60% iron content.

Four major iron ore belts:

Odisha-Jharkhand Belt: Badampahar Mines—High grade hematite ore is found here.

Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur Belt: Bailadila Mines—Super high grade hematite ore deposits are found in Bailadila range. Iron ore from these mines is exported to Japan and South Korea.

Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur Tumkur Belt in Karnataka: Kudremukh Mines — A 100 per cent export unit. The ore is transported as slurry to a port near Mangalore.

Maharashtra-Goa Belt: Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra—Ores are not of very high quality. Iron ore is exported through Marmagao port.

Aluminium is obtained from bauxite ore. It is an important metal because—it has the strength of metals such as iron, and is extremely light at the same time; it has good conductivity; and it has great malleability.

Bauxite deposits are formed by the decomposition of a wide variety of rocks rich in aluminium silicates. Leading State of bauxite production is Odisha, producing 45% of the total bauxite of India. The most important bauxite deposits are found in Panchpatmali in Koraput district.

Other States are Gujarat (17%), Jharkhand (14%) and Maharashtra (11%).

Mica is made up of a series of plates or leaves. It splits easily into such thin sheets that a thousand put together are only a few centimeters thick. Mica is indispensable for electric and electronic industry because it has —

excellent di-electric strength;

Low power loss factor;

Insulating properties; and

Resistance to high voltage.

Mica deposits are found in the northern edge of Chhota Nagpur Plateau. Jharkhand is the leading producer. The important mica producing belt here is Koderma-Gaya-Hazaribagh.

Dangers involved in mining are—

The risk of collapsing mine roofs;

Inundation, i.e., flooding in mines;

Fires in coal-mines is a constant threat to miners; and

Poisonous gases, dust and noxious fumes inhaled by miners make them vulnerable to pulmonary diseases.

Adverse effects of mining on the environment:

The water sources in the region get contaminated;

Dumping of the slurry and waste leads to degradation of land and soil; and-

It also leads to an increase in stream and river pollution.

Conservation of minerals is necessary because:

The formation of minerals takes a long geological period of millions of years.

They are finite in nature, non-renewable and exhaustible.

The rate of replenishment of minerals is infinitely small in comparison to rate of consumption.

They have to be preserved for our future generations.

Methods of mineral conservation:

We should use minerals in a planned and sustainable manner.

Improved technologies need to be evolved to allow use of low grade ores at low cost.

Recycling of metals, using scrap metals and other substitutes.

Wastage’s in mining, processing and distribution should be minimized.

Controlled export of minerals.

ENERGY RESOURCES

Energy resources can be classified as conventional and non-conventional sources.

Conventional sources include coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity (both hydel and thermal). All these sources have been in use for quite some time.

Non-conventional sources of energy are relatively new sources as their large scale generation has started recently. These include solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas and atomic energy.

Coal as an important source of energy:

It provides a substantial part of the nation’s energy needs as it is abundantly available.

It is used for power generation, to supply energy for industrial and domestic needs.

India is highly dependent on coal for meeting its commercial needs. Its share in total—67%.

It can easily be converted into other forms of energy—electricity, gas, oil, etc.

Coal as an industrial raw material:

It is an indispensable raw material for iron and steel industry.

It provides raw material for chemical industries and synthetic textile industries.

Many coal-based products are processed in industries, e.g., coal tar, graphite, soft coke, etc.

Power generation industry is mainly based on this fossil fuel.

Four types of coal and their characteristics:

(a) Anthracite—1. It is the highest quality hard coal; 2. It contains more than 80% carbon content. It gives less smoke. ,

(b) Bituminous— 1. It is the most popular coal in commercial use and has 60-80% carbon content; 2. Metallurgical coal is high grade bituminous coal and is of special value for smelting iron in blast furnaces.

(c) Lignite—1. It is a low grade brown coal; 2. It is soft with high moisture content. The main lignite reserve is Neyveli in Tamil Nadu.

(d) Peat—1. It has a low carbon and high moisture content; 2. It has low heating capacity and gives lot of smoke on burning.

Occurrence of coal:

Gondwana Coal Belt—A little over 200 million years in age. Mainly metallurgical coal is found in: (a) Damodar Valley Belt (West Bengal, Jharkhand) which contains important coal mines of Jharia, Raniganj and Bokaro; (b) The Godavari Valley Belt; (c) The Mahanadi Valley Belt; and (d) Wardha Valley Belt.

Tertiary coal deposits are only about 55 million years old, i.e., they are comparatively younger. They occur in North-Eastern States, namely: (a) Assam (b) Meghalaya, (c) Arunachal Pradesh and (d) Nagaland.

Petroleum:

It is the second most important energy source of India after coal. It can be easily trans-ported by pipelines and does not leave any residue. It provides fuel for heat and light. It provides lubricants for machinery. It provides raw material for a number of manufacturing industries. It is an important fuel used in transportation sector. Petroleum refineries act as a ‘nodal industry’ for synthetic textiles, fertilizers and many chemical industries.

Occurrence and formation of petroleum:

Most of the petroleum occurrences in India are associated with anticlines and fault traps in the rock formations of the tertiary age. In regions of folding anticlines it occurs where oil is trapped in the crest of the upfold. The oil bearing layer is porous limestone or sandstone through which oil may flow. Petroleum is also found in fault traps between porous and non-porous rocks.

Distribution of petroleum:

Mumbai High—It is an offshore oilfield and is the richest oilfield of India. Its share is about 63% of India’s petroleum production;

Gujarat—It produces 18% petroleum of India. Ankaleshwar is the most important field; and

Assam—It is the oldest oil producing State of India. Its contribution in the total production is 16%. Important oilfields are Digboi, Naharkatiya and Moran-Hugrijan.

Non-Conventional Sources of Energy:

Nuclear Energy:

Nuclear energy is obtained by altering the structure of atom. When the structure of an atom is altered, too much energy is released in the form of heat. This heat is utilised to generate electric power. Uranium and Thorium are used for generating atomic power. These minerals are available in Jharkhand, Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan.

Solar Energy:

Photovoltaic technology is used to convert solar energy into electricity. The largest solar plant of India is located at Madhapur near Bhuj. Solar energy holds great promises for the future. It can help in minimizing the dependence on firewood and animal dung cakes in rural areas. This will also help in conservation of fossil fuels.

Wind Power:

The wind farm cluster in Tamil Nadu (from Nagarcoil to Madurai) is the largest cluster in India. Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra and Lakshadweep are also important centres of wind power production. India is now a “Wind Super Power” in the world.

Biogas:

Biogas can be produced from shrubs, farm waste, and animal and human waste. It is more efficient than kerosene, dung cake and charcoal. Biogas plants can be set up at municipal, cooperative and individual levels. The gobar gas plants provide energy and also manure.

Tidal Energy:

Dams are built across inlets. The water flows into the inlet during high tide and gets trapped when the gate is closed. Once the tide recedes, the floodgates are opened so that water can flow back to the sea. The flow of water is used to run the turbine to generate electricity. A 900 mw tidal energy power plant is set up by the National Hydropower Corporation in the Gulf of Kuchchh.

Geo Thermal Energy:

We know that the inside of the earth is very hot. At some places, this heat is released on the surface through fissures. Groundwater in such areas becomes hot and rises up in the form of steam. This steam is used to drive turbines. Two geo thermal energy projects—the Parvati valley near Manikam in Himachal Pradesh and the Puga valley in Ladakh.

Importance of energy:

Energy is required for all activities. It is needed to cook, to provide light and heat, to propel vehicles and to drive machinery in industries. It is the basic requirement for economic development. Every sector of national economy—agriculture, industry, transport and commerce needs greater inputs of energy. Energy demands, in the form of electricity, are growing because of increasing use of electrical gadgets and appliances.

Ways to conserve energy:

Using more of public transport system instead of individual vehicles.

Switching off electrical devices when not in use, using power saving devices.

Using non-conventional sources of energy such as solar energy, wind energy, etc.

Getting the power equipment regularly checked to detect damages and leakages

Class-X Geography Chapter- 4 Agriculture

Class-X, Geography

Chapter- 4 

  Agriculture 

Topics in the Chapter

• Introduction
• Types of Farming
• Cropping Pattern
• Major Crops
• Food Crops other than Grains
• Non-Food Crops
• Technological and Institutional Reforms

• Contribution of agriculture to the national economy, employment and output

• Food Security

• Impact of Globalisation on Agriculture

Introduction

• India is an agriculturally important country as two-thirds of its population is engaged in agricultural activities.

Types of Farming

• There are various types of farming systems in different parts of India are:

→ Primitive Subsistence Farming: It is a ‘slash and burn’ agriculture. It is done with the help of primitive tools like hoe, dao and digging sticks, and family/community labour. The farming depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of the soil and suitability of other environmental conditions to the crops grown.

→ Intensive Subsistence Farming: This type of farming is labour-intensive farming, where high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are used for obtaining higher production.This method is commonly done where less land holding is available.

→ Commercial Farming: This type of farming is done using higher doses of modern inputs, e.g. high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides in order to obtain higher productivity. 

• Plantation is also a type of commercial farming.

→ In this type of farming, a single crop is grown on a large area.

Cropping Pattern

• India has three cropping seasons 

→ Rabi - Rabi crops are sown in winter from October to December and harvested in summer from April to June. Important rabi crops are wheat, barley, peas, gram and mustard.

→ Kharif - Kharif crops are grown with the onset of monsoon in different parts of the country and these are harvested in September-October. Important crops grown during this season are paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar), moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and soyabean.

→ Zaid - In between the rabi and the kharif seasons, there is a short season during the summer months known as the Zaid season. Important crops grown are watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber,

vegetables and fodder crops.

Major Crops

• Major crops grown in India are rice, wheat, millets, pulses, tea, coffee, sugarcane, oil seeds, cotton and jute, etc.

• Rice:

→ Staple food crop

→ Our country is the second largest producer of rice in the world after China.

→ It is a kharif crop which requires high temperature, (above 25°C) and high humidity with annual rainfall above 100 cm.

→ It is grown in the plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal areas and the deltaic regions.

• Wheat:

→ The second most important cereal crop.
→ It is the main food crop, in north and north-western part of the country.

→ This rabi crop requires a cool growing season with 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall and a bright sunshine at the time of ripening.

→ Wheat growing regions are the Ganga-Satluj plains in the north- west and black soil region of the Deccan.

• Millets:
→ Jowar, bajra and ragi are the important millets grown in India.

→ These have very high nutritional value.

• Pulses:

→ India is the largest producer as well as the consumer of pulses in the world.

→ Major source of protein in a vegetarian diet.
→ These need less moisture and survive even in dry conditions.
→ Major producing states in India are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Karnataka.

Food Crops other than Grains

• Sugarcane:

→ It is a tropical as well as a subtropical crop. 

→ It grows well in hot and humid climate with a temperature of 21°C to 27°C and an annual rainfall between 75 cm. and 100 cm.

→ Major producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.

• Oil Seeds:

→ The oil seeds covers approximately 12 percent of the total cropped area of the country.

→ These are used as cooking mediums as well as used as raw material in the production of soap, cosmetics and ointments.

• Tea:

→ Tea cultivation is an example of plantation agriculture.

→ It is an important beverage crop introduced in India initially by the British.

→ It requires warm and moist frost-free climate with frequent showers all through the year.

→ Major producing states are Assam, hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

• Coffee:

→ Indian coffee is known in the world for its good quality.

→ Its cultivation is confined to the Nilgiri in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

• Horticulture Crops:

→ India is a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits.

→ India produces about 13 percent of the world’s vegetables.

Non-Food Crops

• Rubber: 

→ It is an equatorial crop, but under special conditions, it is also grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas. 

→ It requires moist and humid climate with rainfall of more than 200 cm. and temperature above 25°C.

→ It is mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andaman and Nicobar islands and Garo hills of Meghalaya.

• Fibre Crops:

→ Cotton, jute, hemp and natural silk are the four major fibre crops grown in India.

→ Rearing of silk worms for the production of silk fibre is known as sericulture.

• Cotton:

→ It is a kharif crop grows well in drier parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan plateau. 

→ It requires high temperature, light rainfall or irrigation, 210 frost-free days and bright sun-shine for its growth.

→ Major producing states are – Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.

• Jute:

→ It grows well on well-drained fertile soils in the flood plains where soils are renewed every year.

→ Major jute-producing states West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha and Meghalaya.

→ It is used in making gunny bags, mats, ropes, yarn, carpets and other artefacts.

Technological and Institutional Reforms

• More than 60 percent of India's population depends on agriculture.

• After independence, major institutional reforms such as Collectivisation, consolidation of holdings, cooperation and abolition of zamindari, etc. were given priority.

• In 1960s and 1970s, technical reforms such as Green Revolution and White Revolution also introduced to improved the condition of agriculture.

• In 1980s and 1990s, various provisions for crop insurance, establishment of Grameen banks, cooperative societies and banks for providing loan facilities to the farmers at lower rates of interest.

• Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS) are some other schemes introduced by the Government of India for the benefit of the farmers.

• Special weather bulletins and agricultural programmes for farmers were introduced on
the radio and television.

• Minimum support price, remunerative and procurement prices for important crops to check the exploitation of farmers by speculators and middlemen.

Contribution of agriculture to the national economy, employment and output

• In 2010-11 about 52 percent of the total workforce of India was employed by the farm sector.

• India's GDP growth rate is increasing over the years but it is not generating sufficient employment opportunities in the country.

Food Security

• The government designed national food security system to ensure the food security to every citizen:

→ It consists of two components 

(a) buffer stock and 

(b) public distribution system (PDS)

• Food Corporation of India (FCI) is responsible for procuring and stocking foodgrains, whereas

distribution is ensured by public distribution system (PDS).

• PDS is a programme which provides food grains and other essential commodities at subsidised prices in rural and urban areas.

• The primary objective of national food security are:

→ Ensure availability of foodgrains to the common people at an affordable price.

→ The poor should have access to food.

→ Growth in agriculture production

→ Fixing the support price for procurement of wheat and rice, to maintain their stocks.

Impact of Globalisation on Agriculture

• Globalisation is present at the time of colonisation. 

→ During the British period, cotton was exported to Britain as a raw material for their textile industries.

• After 1990, the farmers in India have been exposed to new challenges under globalisation.

→ The agricultural products of India are not able to compete with the developed countries because of the highly subsidised agriculture in those countries.

• Genetic engineering is revolutionising the agricultural production now a days.

• Organic farming is also in fashion these days because it is practised without factory made chemicals such as fertilisers and pesticides. Hence, it does not affect environment in a negative manner.

• Indian farmers should diversify their cropping pattern from cereals to high-value crops which will increase incomes and reduce environmental degradation simultaneously.

the end

Class-X : Geography Chapter- 1 : Resources and Development

 

ODISHA ADARSHA VIDYALAYA PALASAGADIA

Class-X : Geography

Chapter- 1 : Resources and Development

 

Topics in the Chapter

• Resources
• Classification of Resources
→ On the basis of origin

→ On the Basis of Exhaustibility
→ On the Basis of Ownership
→ On the Basis of the Status of Development

• Development of Resources

• Resource Planning

• Land Resources

→ Land Resources in India

• Land Use Pattern in India

• Land Degradation and Conservation measures

• Soil as a Resource

• Classification of Soils

→ Alluvial Soils

→ Black Soil

→ Red and Yellow Soils

→ Laterite Soils

→ Arid Soils

→ Forest Soils

• Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation

Resources

 

• Everything available in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs, provided, it is technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable can be termed as ‘Resource’.

 

Classification of Resources

 

• The resources can be classified as:

→ On the basis of origin – biotic and abiotic

→ On the basis of exhaustibility – renewable and non-renewable

→ On the basis of ownership – individual, community, national and international

→ On the basis of status of development – potential, developed stock and reserves.

 

On the Basis of Origin

 

• Biotic Resources: These are obtained from biosphere and have life such as human beings, flora and fauna, fisheries, livestock etc.

 

• Abiotic Resources: All those things which are composed of non-living things are called abiotic resources. For example, rocks and metals.

 

On the Basis of Exhaustibility

 

• Renewable Resources: The resources which can be renewed or reproduced by physical, chemical or mechanical processes are known as renewable resources. For example, solar and wind energy, water, forests and wildlife, etc.

 

• Non-Renewable Resources: The resources once consumed cannot be replaced are known as non-renewable resources. These resources take millions of years in their formation.For example: Oil, Coal etc.

 

On the Basis of Ownership

 

• Individual Resources: The resources owned privately by individuals are called Individual resources. For example: Plot, houses etc. owned by a person.

 

• Community Owned Resources: The resources which are accessible to all the members of the community. For example: Public parks, picnic spots owned by a community.

 

• National Resources: The resources which come under nation are known as National Resources. Technically, all the resources belong to the nation.

 

• International Resources: The resources lying beyond 200 kms of Exclusive Economic Zone in the oceans are called International Resources. No one can use these resources without the permission of international institutions.

 

On the Basis of the Status of Development

 

• Potential Resources: Resources which are found in a region, but have not been utilised. For example: the regions Rajasthan and Gujarat have enormous potential for the development of wind and solar energy.

• Developed Resources: Resources which are surveyed and their quality and quantity have been determined for utilisation.

 

• Stock: The resources that have been surveyed, but cannot be used due a lack of technology. For example: water is a compound of two inflammable gases; hydrogen and oxygen, which can be used as a rich source of energy but we don't have technical know-how to use them.

• Reserves: The resources that have been surveyed and we can use them with present technology but their use has not been started are known as Reserves. For example: the water in the dams, forests etc.

Development of Resources

• Resources are vital for human survival.

 

• It was believed that resources are free gifts of nature so, human beings used them indiscriminately and this has led to the following major problems:

→  Depletion of resources for satisfying the greed of few individuals.

→ Accumulation of resources in few hands which divides the society into rich and poor.

→ Indiscriminate exploitation of resources has led to global ecological crises such as, global warming, ozone layer depletion, environmental pollution and land degradation.

 

• For a sustained quality of life and global peace, an equitable distribution of resources has
become essential.

 

• For using resources judiciously, we need to adopt sustainable economic development.

• Sustainable economic development means development should take place without damaging the environment, and development in the present should not compromise with the needs of the future generations.

 

Resource Planning

 

• Resource planning is a complex process which involves :

(i) Identification and inventory of resources across the regions of the country. This involves surveying, mapping and qualitative and quantitative estimation and measurement of the resources. 

(ii) Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set up for implementing resource development plans.

(iii) Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans.

 

Land Resources

• Land is a natural resource of utmost importance.
→ It supports natural vegetation, wild life, human life, economic activities, transport and communication systems.

 

• Land is present in limited size so we must use them effectively.

 

Land Resources in India

 

• About 43 percent of the land area is plain, which provides facilities for agriculture and industry. 

 

• About 30 percent of the total surface area of the country are mountains which ensure perennial flow of some rivers and provide facilities for tourism and ecological aspects.

 

• About 27 per cent of the area of the country is the plateau region that possesses rich reserves

of minerals, fossil fuels and forests.

Land Use Pattern in India

 

• The use of land is determined by: 

→ Physical factors such as topography, climate, soil types

→ Human factors such as population density, technological capability and culture and traditions etc.

 

• Land use data, however, is available only for 93 per cent of the total geographical area because the land use reporting for most of the north-east states except Assam has not been done fully.

→ Also, some areas of Jammu and Kashmir occupied by Pakistan and China have also not been surveyed.

 

Land Degradation and Conservation measures

 

• Human activities such as deforestation, over grazing, mining and quarrying contributed in land degradation.

 

• Measures to control land degradation:

→ Afforestation

→ Planting of shelter belts of plants

→ control on over grazing

→ stabilisation of sand dunes by growing thorny bushes 

→ Proper management of waste lands

→ control of mining activities

 

Soil as a Resource

 

• Soil is the most important renewable natural resource. 

 

• It is the medium of plant growth and supports different types of living organisms on the earth.

 

Classification of Soils

 

On the basis of the factors responsible for soil formation, colour, thickness, texture, age, chemical and physical properties, the soils of India can be classified in different types:

 

• Alluvial Soils:

→ Entire northern plains are made of alluvial soil.

→ Also found in the eastern coastal plains particularly in the deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri rivers.

→ Fertile soil therefore, fit for agriculture purpose.

→ Regions of alluvial soils are intensively cultivated and densely populated.

→ Rich in potash, phosphoric acid and lime which are ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy, wheat and other cereal and pulse crops.

 

• Black Soil:

→ Black in colour and are also known as regur soils.

→ Ideal for growing cotton and is also known as black cotton soil.

→ Found in the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh also along the Godavari and the Krishna valleys.

→ Made up of extremely fine i.e. clayey material. 

→ Well-known for their capacity to hold moisture.

→ Rich in calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime.

 

• Red and Yellow Soils:

→ Found in the areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern parts of the Deccan plateau. 

→ Also found in parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle Ganga plain and along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghats. 

→ Develop a reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks.

 

• Laterite Soils:

→ Develops in areas with high temperature and heavy rainfall.
→ Found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, and the hilly areas of Odisha and Assam.

 

→ Suitable for cultivation with adequate doses of manures and fertilizers.

→ Low Humus content because decomposers, like bacteria, get destroyed due to high temperature.

 

• Arid Soils:

→ Found in the western parts of Rajasthan.

→ After proper irrigation these soils become cultivable.

→ Lacks humus and moisture because dry climate, high temperature make evaporation faster.

→ Salt content is very high and common salt is obtained by evaporating the water.

 

• Forest Soils:

→ Found in the hilly and mountainous areas where sufficient rain forests are available.

→ Feature differs based on location. 

→ Loamy and silty in valley sides and coarse grained in the upper slopes.

→ Silt in the lower parts of the valleys particularly on the river terraces and alluvial fans are fertile.

 

Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation

 

• Natural ways of Soil erosion: Wind, glacier and water lead to soil erosion.

 

• Human activities: Deforestation, over-grazing, construction and mining etc., contributes in soil erosion.

 

• Measures to control Soil erosion:

→ Strip cropping

→ Planting shelter belts

→ In the hilly areas, using contour ploughing and terrace farming.