4. Turning
Tides
(11th
and 12th Centuries)
Introduction
The 11th and 12th centuries
were an important period in Indian history. During this time, Turkic invaders
attacked north India and went much deeper into the country than earlier Arab
invaders. Indian kingdoms strongly resisted these invasions, but many wars and
destruction took place.
1. Arab Invasions Had Limited
Impact
- Earlier, Arabs tried many times to invade
north India.
- They could not fully dominate India.
- Their attacks had only a small overall effect
on Indian society and politics.
2. Turkic Invasions Were More
Powerful
- In the 11th and 12th centuries, Turkic rulers
invaded north India.
- These invasions were stronger and more
successful.
- They entered deep into north India despite
resistance from Indian rulers.
3. Resistance by Indian
Kingdoms
- Native Indian kingdoms fought bravely against
the invaders.
- Sometimes Indian rulers defeated the invaders.
- However, Indian kingdoms were also fighting
among themselves, which weakened their unity.
4. Growth and Achievements
Even during wars, many Indian
rulers became powerful and successful. They:
- Conducted naval expeditions
- Built great monuments and temples
- Spread Indian influence to other regions
5. Contributions to Culture
and Knowledge
This period also produced
many:
- Poets
- Philosophers
- Saints
- Scientists
Their works still inspire and
guide people today.
Keywords
- Turkic Powers – Central Asian rulers
who invaded India.
- Naval Expeditions – Journeys or attacks
carried out by sea.
- Native Kingdoms – Indian kingdoms
already existing in India.
Important
Exam Questions
Very Short Questions
- Which invaders penetrated deeply into north
India in the 11th and 12th centuries?
- Why were Indian kingdoms weakened during this
period?
- Name two achievements of Indian rulers during
this time.
Short Answer Questions
- How were Turkic invasions different from
earlier Arab invasions?
- Mention any three achievements of Indian
rulers in the 11th and 12th centuries.
Long Answer Question
- Describe the political and cultural condition
of India during the 11th and 12th centuries.
The Ghaznavid Invasions
Introduction
In the 9th and 10th centuries,
many kingdoms existed in present-day Afghanistan and northern Pakistan. Among
them, the Hindu Shāhi dynasty was powerful and protected north-western India
from invasions for many years.
1. Hindu Shāhi Dynasty
- The Hindu Shāhis ruled areas of:
- Afghanistan
- Northern Pakistan
- Punjab
- They resisted several foreign invasions with
the help of Indian rulers.
Importance of Khyber Pass
- The Hindu Shāhis controlled the Khyber Pass.
- It was an important mountain pass through the
Hindu Kush mountains.
- It served as:
- A route for invaders entering India
- A major trade route
- A path used by Buddhist monks and scholars
2. Rise of the Ghaznavids
- The Ghaznavids were a Turkic dynasty.
- Their capital was Ghazna (modern Ghazni
in Afghanistan).
- Their ruler was Mahmūd of Ghazni.
Victories of Mahmūd
- Mahmūd defeated the Hindu Shāhi ruler Jayapāla.
- In 1008 CE, he defeated Jayapāla’s son Ānandapāla
in Punjab.
- Even though many north Indian rulers supported
Ānandapāla, Mahmūd won the battle.
Result
- Mahmūd gained easy access to the Indus plains
and north India.
3. Title of Sultan
- Mahmūd took the title “Sultan.”
- The word means:
- Authority
- Power
- Later, rulers of the Delhi Sultanate also used
this title.
Mahmūd’s Campaigns in India
4. Seventeen Campaigns
- Mahmūd conducted 17 invasions of India.
- After every campaign, he returned to Ghazni
with huge wealth and booty.
Military Strength
His success was due to:
- Fast-moving armies
- Strong cavalry
- Horse-mounted archers
5. Attack on Mathura and
Kannauj
Mathura (1018 CE)
- Mahmūd attacked Mathura in Uttar Pradesh.
- The city was rich and had magnificent temples.
- He destroyed the temples and looted their
treasures.
Kannauj
- Mahmūd attacked Kannauj afterward.
- He looted and destroyed many temples there
too.
6. Attack on Somnath
- Mahmūd later invaded Gujarat.
- He attacked the famous Somnath Temple
in Saurashtra.
What Happened?
- Local people resisted bravely.
- Mahmūd’s army suffered heavy losses.
- Finally, he captured the temple, destroyed it,
and looted its treasures.
7. Death of Mahmūd and
Resistance by Suheldev
- Mahmūd died in 1030 CE at Ghazni.
- Later, his nephew Sālār Masūd attacked
north India.
Battle of Bahraich
- Local ruler Suheldev resisted the
invasion.
- Sālār Masūd was defeated and killed in battle.
Effects of Mahmūd’s Invasions
8. Destruction and Violence
Mahmūd’s invasions caused:
- Destruction of temples
- Looting of wealth
- Killing of thousands of civilians
- Capture of prisoners and children
Slave Trade
- Many prisoners were taken to Central Asia and
sold as slaves.
Cruel Reputation
- Mahmūd was known as:
- Powerful
- Ruthless
- Cruel
Keywords
- Hindu Shāhis – Dynasty ruling Afghanistan, Pakistan, and
Punjab.
- Khyber Pass – Important route connecting India with
Central Asia.
- Sultan – A powerful Muslim ruler or king.
- Booty – Wealth taken during war or invasion.
- Cavalry – Soldiers fighting on horseback.
Important
Exam Questions
Very Short Questions
- Who were the Hindu Shāhis?
- What was the importance of the Khyber Pass?
- Who was Mahmūd of Ghazni?
- How many campaigns did Mahmūd conduct in
India?
- Which famous temple did Mahmūd attack in Gujarat?
Short Answer Questions
- Why was the Khyber Pass important?
- Describe Mahmūd’s attack on Mathura.
- What were the effects of Mahmūd’s invasions?
Long Answer Questions
- Explain the Ghaznavid invasions and their
impact on India.
- Describe the resistance offered by Indian
rulers against Mahmūd of Ghazni.
Al-Bīrūnī and Bhāskarāchārya
1.
Al-Bīrūnī
Introduction
Al-Bīrūnī was a famous Persian
scholar from Khwārizm (present-day Uzbekistan). He was:
- A mathematician
- Astronomer
- Geographer
- Historian
- Linguist
He wrote many books in Arabic
and Persian on different subjects.
Al-Bīrūnī in India
- Around 1017 CE, al-Bīrūnī came to India with
Mahmūd of Ghazni.
- He learned Sanskrit.
- He studied Indian books and discussed ideas
with Indian scholars.
His Contributions
Al-Bīrūnī wrote a detailed
account of:
- Indian religion
- Philosophy
- Literature
- Geography
- Science
He compared Indian knowledge
with:
- Greek traditions
- Islamic traditions
Scientific Studies
Al-Bīrūnī collected knowledge
from Indian scholars such as:
- Āryabhaṭa
- Varāhamihira
- Brahmagupta
Translation Work
- He translated Patanjali’s Yogasūtras into
Arabic.
- This helped spread Indian knowledge of yoga to
other regions.
His Opinion About Mahmūd’s
Invasions
Al-Bīrūnī observed that
Mahmūd’s invasions damaged India’s scientific progress.
According to Him:
- Prosperity was ruined.
- Scholars moved away to safer places like:
- Kashmir
- Varanasi
2.
Bhāskarāchārya
Introduction
Bhāskarāchārya (Bhāskara II)
was one of India’s greatest:
- Mathematicians
- Astronomers
Birth
- Born in 1114 CE
- Probably in present-day Maharashtra
Famous Works
1. Līlāvatī
- Book on basic mathematics
- Uses riddles and interesting problems
2. Bījagaṇita
- Book on advanced algebra
3. Siddhāntaśhiromaṇi
- Book on mathematical astronomy
- Contains advanced astronomical calculations
Importance of His Works
- Later scholars wrote commentaries on his
books.
- His works were translated into Persian during
the Mughal period.
- His ideas influenced scholars in India and
abroad.
Special Features
Bhāskarāchārya:
- Used poetry in his writings
- Gave clear explanations and proofs
- Made learning mathematics enjoyable
Example from Līlāvatī
Bhāskarāchārya used puzzles to
teach mathematics.
Elephant Puzzle
A herd of elephants was
divided into different groups, and students had to calculate the total number
of elephants.
This method made mathematics
interesting and easy to learn.
Mahmūd’s Motives for Temple Destruction
Reasons Suggested by
Historians
Some historians believe Mahmūd
attacked temples mainly for:
- Wealth and treasure
Why Temples Were Rich
Large temples collected:
- Offerings from devotees
- Wealth over many centuries
Religious Motive
Evidence also shows Mahmūd
wanted to spread his version of Islam.
Actions Taken
- Destroyed temples
- Built mosques
- Looted cities
- Took prisoners and cattle as booty
Somnath Temple Incident
According to al-Bīrūnī:
- Mahmūd destroyed the śhivalinga at Somnath.
- Parts of it were taken to Ghazni.
- A piece was placed near a mosque entrance.
Keywords
- Encyclopaedic – Covering many subjects
in detail.
- Yogasūtras – Ancient text on yoga by Patanjali.
- Algebra – Branch of mathematics using symbols and
equations.
- Booty – Wealth captured during war.
- Astronomy – Study of stars, planets, and space.
Important
Exam Questions
Very Short Questions
- Who was al-Bīrūnī?
- Which language did al-Bīrūnī learn in India?
- Name any two Indian scholars studied by
al-Bīrūnī.
- Who was Bhāskarāchārya?
- Name the famous mathematical book written by
Bhāskarāchārya.
Short Answer Questions
- What were the contributions of al-Bīrūnī?
- Describe the important works of
Bhāskarāchārya.
- Why did Mahmūd attack temples in India?
Long Answer Questions
- Explain the achievements of al-Bīrūnī in
studying Indian culture and science.
- Describe the contributions of Bhāskarāchārya
to mathematics and astronomy.
Eastern India
1.
Eastern India in the 11th Century
Different Situation from North
India
- While north India suffered from Ghaznavid
invasions, eastern India remained more peaceful and stable.
- Powerful regional kingdoms grew in Bengal,
Assam, and Kalinga.
2. The
Sena Dynasty
Rise of the Senas
- After the decline of the Pāla dynasty, the Sena
dynasty became powerful in Bengal.
- Their capital was Nādīya (present-day
Nadia district near Bangladesh).
Relations with Neighbouring
Kingdoms
The Senas had relations with:
- Kāmarūpa (Assam)
- Kalinga (Odisha)
Nature of Relations
- Sometimes friendly
- Sometimes conflictual (wars and disputes)
Cultural Contributions
Difference from the Pālas
- The Pālas supported Buddhism.
- The Senas promoted Hindu religion,
literature, and culture.
Support to Poets
The Sena rulers supported
poets such as:
- Jayadeva
Famous Work
- Jayadeva wrote the Gītagovindam.
- It describes the story of:
- Kṛiṣhṇa
- Rādhā
3. The
Eastern Ganga Dynasty
Rule in Kalinga
- In Kalinga (present-day Odisha), the Eastern
Gangas became powerful rulers.
Relations with the Cholas
- They had marriage alliances with the
Cholas.
- At times, they also fought wars with the
Cholas and other neighbouring kingdoms.
Growth of Their Kingdom
By the end of the 12th
century:
- The Eastern Gangas became one of the strongest
and most stable powers in eastern India.
- Their kingdom stretched:
- From the Gangā River
- To the Godāvarī River
4.
Temple Construction
Jagannātha Temple
- The Eastern Gangas began the construction of
the famous Jagannātha Temple at Puri.
Sun Temple at Konark
- In the mid-13th century, they also started
building the grand Sun Temple at Konark.
Keywords
- Sena Dynasty – Powerful rulers of Bengal after the Pālas.
- Kāmarūpa – Ancient Assam.
- Kalinga – Ancient Odisha region.
- Gītagovindam – Famous poem by Jayadeva about Kṛiṣhṇa and Rādhā.
- Matrimonial Alliance – Relationship through
marriage between royal families.
Important
Exam Questions
Very Short Questions
- Which dynasty ruled Bengal after the Pālas?
- What was the capital of the Sena dynasty?
- Who wrote the Gītagovindam?
- Which dynasty ruled Kalinga?
- Which famous temples were built by the Eastern
Gangas?
Short Answer Questions
- How were the Senas different from the Pālas?
- Describe the achievements of the Eastern Ganga
dynasty.
- Write a short note on Jayadeva.
Long Answer Questions
- Explain the political and cultural
developments in eastern India during the 11th and 12th centuries.
- Describe the contributions of the Eastern
Gangas to temple architecture and regional power.
Further South
1.
Political Situation in South India
Major Kingdoms in the Deccan
In south India and the Deccan
region, several powerful dynasties ruled during this period.
Two important dynasties were:
- Western Chālukyas
- Eastern Chālukyas
2.
Western Chālukyas
Capital
- Their capital was Kalyāṇī (Kalyāṇa).
Power and Territory
- The Western Chālukyas were a major power in
the Deccan.
- Their kingdom stretched up to the Narmada
River in the north.
3.
Eastern Chālukyas
Chola Influence
- The Eastern Chālukyas slowly came under the
influence of the Cholas.
- This happened mainly through marriage
alliances.
4.
Conflict Over Vengi
Importance of Vengi
- The capital of the Eastern Chālukyas was Vengi.
- The surrounding region was fertile and
wealthy.
Wars for Control
- Both the:
- Cholas
- Western Chālukyas
wanted control over Vengi.
Result
- Fierce wars took place between them.
5.
Decline and Rise of New Powers
Decline of Western Chālukyas
- Continuous wars weakened the Western
Chālukyas.
- Eventually, they lost their power.
Rise of New Dynasties
Two new powers became strong:
- Kākatīyas
- Hoysalas
These dynasties later replaced
the Western Chālukyas.
Keywords
- Deccan – Plateau region of south-central India.
- Marriage Alliance – Political relationship
created through marriage between royal families.
- Vengi – Capital region of the Eastern Chālukyas.
- Fertile Region – Land suitable for
agriculture and farming.
Important
Exam Questions
Very Short Questions
- What was the capital of the Western Chālukyas?
- Which river marked the northern extent of the
Western Chālukya kingdom?
- Which region became the centre of conflict
between the Cholas and Western Chālukyas?
- Name the two dynasties that replaced the
Western Chālukyas.
Short Answer Questions
- Why did wars occur over Vengi?
- How did the Eastern Chālukyas come under Chola
influence?
- What caused the decline of the Western
Chālukyas?
Long Answer Questions
- Describe the political situation in the Deccan
during the 11th and 12th centuries.
- Explain the conflict between the Cholas and
Western Chālukyas over Vengi.
The Kākatīyas and Hoysalas
1. The
Kākatīyas
Rise of the Kākatīyas
- In the 12th century, the Kākatīyas became
powerful rulers in:
- Present-day Telangana
- Andhra Pradesh
Capital
- Their capital was Orugallu (modern
Warangal).
Forts and Architecture
- They built a strong fort at Warangal.
- The fort had impressive stone toraṇas (gateways).
Famous Temple
- The Thousand Pillar Temple at Hanamkonda
is a famous example of Kākatīya architecture.
Literature and Culture
- Some Kākatīya kings wrote works in Sanskrit.
- They also encouraged Telugu literature
and culture.
Administration and Economy
The Kākatīyas:
- Encouraged village self-governance
- Developed an efficient revenue system
- Built irrigation facilities
Result
- Agriculture prospered in their kingdom.
2. The
Hoysalas
Origin of the Hoysalas
- The Hoysalas originated in southern Karnataka.
Legend Behind the Name
According to a legend:
- Their founder was Sāla.
- One day, while visiting a Jain temple, a tiger
attacked.
- A Jain ascetic shouted:
- “Poy, Sāla” meaning “Strike, Sāla”
in old Kannada.
- Sāla killed the tiger and saved the ascetic.
Meaning of Hoysala
- The name “Hoysala” is believed to come from
this command.
Capitals of the Hoysalas
The main capitals were:
- Velāpura (Belur)
- Dvārasamudra (Halebidu)
Growth of Hoysala Power
- Under King Viṣhṇuvardhana, the Hoysalas:
- Became independent from the Chālukyas
- Challenged the Cholas
- Expanded across most of Karnataka
Cultural Contributions
- The Hoysalas supported:
- Kannada language
- Literature
- Art and architecture
Temple Architecture
The Hoysalas are famous for:
- Beautiful temples
- Intricate stone carvings
- Sculptures and decorated pillars
Famous Temples
- Belur Temple
- Halebidu Temple
UNESCO Recognition
- Three Hoysala temples are recognised as UNESCO
World Heritage Sites.
Keywords
- Toraṇa – Decorative gateway.
- Self-governance – Managing local affairs
independently.
- Revenue System – Method of collecting
taxes.
- Ascetic – A person who lives a simple spiritual life.
- Overlordship – Rule or control by a powerful kingdom over
another.
Important
Exam Questions
Very Short Questions
- What was the capital of the Kākatīyas?
- Name the famous temple built by the Kākatīyas.
- Who was the founder of the Hoysala dynasty
according to legend?
- What does “Poy, Sāla” mean?
- Name the capitals of the Hoysalas.
Short Answer Questions
- Describe the administration of the Kākatīyas.
- Explain the legend behind the name “Hoysala.”
- What are the main features of Hoysala temple
architecture?
Long Answer Questions
- Describe the achievements of the Kākatīyas in
administration, culture, and architecture.
- Explain the rise and cultural contributions of
the Hoysalas.
The Cholas – Masters of the Seas
1.
Introduction to the Cholas
- The Cholas were one of the most powerful
dynasties of south India.
- They ruled mainly in present-day Tamil Nadu.
Capital Cities
The important Chola capitals
were:
- Tanjāvūr (Thanjavur)
- Gangaikoṇḍacholapuram
- Kānchī (Kanchipuram)
2.
Rājarāja Chola
Powerful Ruler
- Rājarāja Chola began ruling in 985 CE.
- He ruled for nearly 30 years.
Military Conquests
He conquered:
- Parts of Karnataka
- Parts of Andhra Pradesh
- Northern Sri Lanka
Conquest of Islands
- His inscriptions mention the conquest of the
“islands of the sea.”
- Historians believe this refers to the Maldives.
Brihadīśvara Temple
- Rājarāja built the famous Bṛihadīśhvara Temple at Thanjavur.
- It is a masterpiece of architecture and
engineering.
Religious Tolerance
- Though the Cholas mainly followed Shaivism,
Rājarāja supported other religions too.
- He helped build a Buddhist vihāra at
Nāgapaṭṭinam.
Connection with Śhrīvijaya
Empire
- The vihāra was built by the ruler of the
Śhrīvijaya Empire.
- Śhrīvijaya was located in parts of
present-day:
- Malaysia
- Indonesia
3.
Rājendra Chola I
Expansion of the Empire
- Rājendra Chola I was the son of Rājarāja
Chola.
- He ruled for nearly 30 years.
Northern Campaigns
He conquered:
- Parts of Odisha
- Bengal
Title of Gangaikoṇḍachola
- He took the title:
- “Gangaikoṇḍachola”
- Meaning:
- “The Chola who brought the Gangā.”
This title celebrated:
- His victories in north India
- The sacred importance of the Gangā River
4.
Cholas and Sri Lanka
- Rājendra expanded Chola control over northern
Sri Lanka.
- Sri Lanka remained part of the Chola Empire
for about 50 years.
End of Chola Rule
- Sri Lankan king Vijayabāhu I later
defeated the Cholas after several battles.
5.
Naval Power and Sea Trade
Strong Navy
- The Cholas were famous for their naval
strength.
- They controlled important sea routes and
trade.
Conflict with Śhrīvijaya
Empire
Reason for Conflict
- Both the Cholas and Śhrīvijaya controlled
important trade routes to China.
- The Strait of Malacca was especially
important.
Naval Expedition
- Rājendra sent a naval expedition against
Śhrīvijaya.
- The Chola navy defeated the Śhrīvijaya forces
and captured their capital.
Purpose
- It was a punitive expedition, not a permanent
conquest.
- Merchant guilds supported the campaign.
6.
Peaceful Cultural Relations
Even after wars, India and
Śhrīvijaya had strong cultural relations.
Example
- A Śhrīvijaya ruler donated land and support to
Nālandā University.
Sri Lanka Relations
- Cultural ties with Sri Lanka remained strong.
- Vijayabāhu I married a princess from Kalinga.
7.
Public Works of the Cholas
The Cholas carried out many
public works:
- Roads
- Tanks
- Wells
- Canals
- Artificial lakes
Purpose
These works improved:
- Communication
- Irrigation
- Agriculture
8.
Decline of the Cholas
Causes of Decline
Frequent wars with:
- Western Chālukyas
- Pāṇḍyas
- Sri Lankan rulers
drained the Chola treasury.
End of the Empire
- By the 13th century, the Chola Empire weakened
greatly.
- Finally, it was absorbed by the Pāṇḍyas.
Keywords
- Vihāra – Buddhist monastery.
- Naval Expedition – Military journey by
sea.
- Punitive Expedition – Attack meant to punish
an enemy.
- Merchant Guilds – Associations of
traders and merchants.
- Treasury – Wealth and money of a kingdom.
Important
Exam Questions
Very Short Questions
- Name the important capitals of the Cholas.
- Who built the Bṛihadīśhvara Temple?
- Which islands are believed to have been
conquered by Rājarāja Chola?
- What title did Rājendra Chola I adopt?
- Which empire was attacked by the Chola navy?
Short Answer Questions
- Describe the achievements of Rājarāja Chola.
- Why did Rājendra Chola attack the Śhrīvijaya
Empire?
- What public works were undertaken by the
Cholas?
Long Answer Questions
- Explain why the Cholas are called “masters of
the seas.”
- Describe the rise, achievements, and decline
of the Chola Empire.
Back to the North
The Paramāras
1.
Rise of the Paramāras
Origin
- The Paramāras were first vassals
(subordinate rulers) of:
- The Pratihāras
- The Rāṣhṭrakūṭas
Independent Kingdom
- In the second half of the 10th century, they
became independent rulers in Malwa (present-day Madhya Pradesh).
Capital
- Their capital was Dhārā (modern Dhar).
2. King Bhoja
Famous Paramāra Ruler
- The most famous Paramāra king was Bhoja.
- He ruled from 1010 CE for nearly 50 years.
Military Achievements
- Bhoja led many military campaigns.
- His kingdom stretched:
- From the Konkan coast
- To parts of Rajasthan
Resistance Against Mahmūd of
Ghazni
- Bhoja supported the Hindu Shāhi rulers
against Mahmūd of Ghazni.
- He sent forces to help resist the invasions.
3.
Decline of the Paramāras
- After Bhoja’s death in 1055 CE, the Paramāras
slowly declined.
- Constant conflicts with neighbouring kingdoms
weakened them.
4.
Bhoja as a Scholar-King
Efficient Administration
Bhoja was known for:
- Good governance
- Public welfare works
Bhojpur and Bhojtal
Construction Works
- Bhoja founded the town of Bhojpur.
- He built a huge lake near present-day Bhopal.
Importance of the Lake
The lake helped in:
- Irrigation
- Water management
Bhojtal
- A small part of this lake survives today as Bhojtal
near Bhopal.
Local Proverb
People remembered the lake’s
huge size through a famous proverb:
- “If there is a lake, it is Bhopal’s lake; all
others are just ponds.”
5.
Bhojeshwar Temple
- Bhoja built the famous Bhojeshwar Temple.
- Though unfinished, it is considered an
architectural marvel.
6.
Patron of Learning
Support to Scholars
- Bhoja encouraged:
- Scholars
- Poets
- Artists
Centre of Learning
- His capital Dhārā became a famous centre of
education and culture.
7.
Bhoja’s Literary Works
Subjects Written By Bhoja
Bhoja wrote books on:
- Architecture
- Town planning
- Temple construction
- Governance
- Sanskrit poetry
- Yoga
- Medicine
Famous Work
Samarāṅgaṇa Sūtradhāra
This work discussed:
- Architecture
- Sculpture
- Mechanical devices
- Temple design
8.
Legacy of Bhoja
- Bhoja became famous as a wise and learned
ruler.
- Many stories and folk tales were later written
about him.
Keywords
- Vassal – A ruler under a more powerful king.
- Malwa – Region in present-day Madhya Pradesh.
- Irrigation – Supplying water to fields for farming.
- Treatise – A detailed written work on a subject.
- Patron – A supporter of art, literature, or
learning.
Important
Exam Questions
Very Short Questions
- Where did the Paramāras rule?
- What was the capital of the Paramāras?
- Who was the most famous Paramāra ruler?
- Which temple was built by Bhoja?
- Name the famous work written by Bhoja on
architecture.
Short Answer Questions
- Describe the achievements of King Bhoja.
- Why is Bhoja called a scholar-king?
- Write a short note on Bhojtal.
Long Answer Questions
- Explain the rise and decline of the Paramāras.
- Describe the contributions of Bhoja in
administration, literature, and architecture.
A Turning Point: The Ghūrids in India
1.
Rise of the Ghūrids
Decline of the Ghaznavids
- After Mahmūd of Ghazni, the Ghaznavid Empire
weakened due to attacks from many sides.
- The empire soon broke apart.
Rise of Ghūr
- The chiefs of Ghūr (present-day Ghor in
Afghanistan) took advantage of this situation.
- Earlier, they had been vassals of the
Ghaznavids.
- They captured Ghazni and became powerful.
2.
Muhammad Ghūrī
Expansion into India
- Their leader Muhammad Ghūrī became the
Sultan of Ghūr.
- He conquered:
- Parts of Punjab
- Sindh
Defeat in Gujarat (1178 CE)
- Muhammad Ghūrī tried to invade Gujarat.
- He was defeated near Mount Abu by:
- Mūlarāja II of the Chaulukya
dynasty
Queen Nāīkīdevī
- Some sources say Queen Nāīkīdevī led the army
while carrying her young son in her lap.
- Historians are divided on whether the victory
belonged mainly to the queen or the king.
3. The
Chaulukyas (Solankis)
Important Facts
- The Chaulukyas ruled parts of:
- Gujarat
- Rajasthan
Capital
- Their capital was Aṇahilavāḍa (modern Patan).
Note
- They were different from the Chālukyas of the
Deccan.
4. The
Chāhamānas (Chauhāns)
Powerful Rajput Dynasty
- The Chāhamānas, also called Chauhāns, ruled:
- Rajasthan
- Delhi
- Haryana
- Parts of Punjab and Uttar Pradesh
Capital
- Their capital was Ajayameru (modern
Ajmer).
5.
Prithviraj Chauhan and the Battles of Tarain
First Battle of Tarain (1191
CE)
- Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Muhammad Ghūrī
at Tarain.
Second Battle of Tarain (1192
CE)
- Muhammad Ghūrī returned with a larger army.
- A fierce battle took place again at Tarain.
Result
- Muhammad Ghūrī defeated Prithviraj Chauhan.
- Prithviraj was executed.
6.
Capture of Delhi
- Muhammad Ghūrī captured Delhi after the
victory.
- Unlike Mahmūd of Ghazni:
- He wanted permanent territorial control.
- He did not simply loot and leave.
7.
Qutb-ud-din Aibak
Trusted General
- Muhammad Ghūrī left his general Qutb-ud-din
Aibak in India.
- Aibak expanded Ghūrid territories.
Importance
- He later founded the Delhi Sultanate.
8.
Bakhtiyār Khiljī
Conquests in Eastern India
- Bakhtiyār Khiljī conquered:
- Bihar
- Bengal
Destruction of Buddhist Centres
He destroyed famous Buddhist
universities such as:
- Nālandā
- Vikramaśhilā
Effects
- Huge libraries and monasteries were destroyed.
- Many monks were killed.
- Historians believe this accelerated the
decline of Buddhism in India.
9.
Nālandā University
Famous Library
- Nālandā had a huge library with lakhs of
manuscripts.
- Chinese pilgrims like:
- Yijing
- Xuanzang
studied there.
Destruction
- After Bakhtiyār Khiljī’s attack, the library
reportedly burned for months.
- Tibetan scholars escaped with manuscripts.
Last Days
- A Tibetan monk later found Nālandā partly
ruined.
- An old teacher, Rāhula Śhrībhadra, was still
teaching about 70 students.
10.
Fall of the Sena Dynasty
- Around 1203–04, Bakhtiyār Khiljī attacked
Bengal.
- He captured Nādīya unexpectedly.
- This ended Sena rule over much of Bengal.
11.
Failed Expedition to Tibet
Defeat in Kāmarūpa
- Bakhtiyār tried to invade Tibet through
Kāmarūpa (Assam).
- Local forces strongly resisted him.
Strategy Used by Locals
- They destroyed food and fodder supplies.
- Bakhtiyār’s army suffered starvation and heavy
losses.
Result
- He escaped with only a few soldiers.
12.
Deaths of Ghūrī and Bakhtiyār
- Muhammad Ghūrī was killed in 1206 CE.
- Bakhtiyār Khiljī was assassinated the same
year.
Aftermath
- Their territories in north India remained
under Muhammad Ghūrī’s generals.
Keywords
- Vassal – A ruler under another powerful ruler.
- Rajput Dynasty – Warrior ruling family
of north India.
- Territorial Conquest – Capturing land to rule
permanently.
- Monastery – Religious centre where monks live and
study.
- Manuscripts – Handwritten books or documents.
Important
Exam Questions
Very Short Questions
- Who was Muhammad Ghūrī?
- Which Rajput ruler defeated Muhammad Ghūrī in
the First Battle of Tarain?
- Who founded the Delhi Sultanate?
- Which universities were destroyed by Bakhtiyār
Khiljī?
- What was the capital of the Chauhāns?
Short Answer Questions
- Explain the importance of the Battles of
Tarain.
- Why is Muhammad Ghūrī considered different
from Mahmūd of Ghazni?
- Describe the destruction of Nālandā
University.
Long Answer Questions
- Explain the rise of the Ghūrids and their
impact on India.
- Describe the campaigns of Bakhtiyār Khiljī and
their effects on Buddhism in India.
Governance, Trade and Cultural Life
1.
Governance and Administration
Need for Strong Armies
- During this period, many wars took place.
- Powerful kings needed large armies.
Army Requirements
Kings had to provide:
- Weapons
- Horses
- Elephants
- Camels (in north India)
This required huge amounts of
money and resources.
Revenue Collection
To maintain armies, rulers
collected:
- Taxes from traders
- Tribute from vassals
Administration
- Efficient administration was necessary for
proper governance.
Muhammad Ghūrī’s System
- Muhammad Ghūrī introduced a more centralised system.
- Officers were given temporary land
assignments.
In Return
The officers had to:
- Collect revenue
- Provide military service
This system later developed
further under the Delhi Sultanate.
2.
Trade and Economy
Foreign Trade
India’s trade with:
- China
- Southeast Asia
continued to grow despite
political conflicts.
Evidence of Trade
- Coins and pottery from foreign countries have
been found on India’s west coast.
- Many seaports and shipyards existed there.
Guilds
- Trade was supported by powerful merchant
guilds.
Agriculture – Mainstay of
Economy
Even though trade was
important, agriculture remained the main source of livelihood.
Important Agricultural
Products
- Rice and barley – Ganga plains and Bengal
- Saffron – Kashmir
- Spices – Kerala
- Ginger – Bengal
- Wheat – Northwest India
- Cotton – Western India and Deccan
Irrigation Works
Many rulers built:
- Tanks
- Wells
- Canals
Importance
These helped:
- Irrigation
- Agriculture
- Water management
3.
Cultural Development
Growth of Arts and Literature
Despite wars:
- Arts
- Literature
- Science
- Religion
continued to flourish.
Someśhvara III and Mānasollāsa
- Chālukya ruler Someśhvara III wrote Mānasollāsa
in the 12th century.
Topics Covered
The book discussed:
- Astronomy
- Architecture
- Music
- Medicine
- Cooking
- Games
- Duties of kings
It was like an encyclopaedia
of royal life.
4.
Temple Architecture
Famous Temples at Khajuraho
The Chandellas built many
temples, including:
- Kandariya Mahādeva Temple
- Lakṣhmaṇa Temple
These are famous examples of
Indian architecture.
5.
Rāmānujāchārya
Philosopher-Saint
- Rāmānujāchārya was an important philosopher
from south India.
Viśhiṣhṭādvaita Philosophy
He developed:
- Viśhiṣhṭādvaita Vedānta
Main Ideas
- The world and souls are real.
- Bhakti (devotion) is the path to liberation.
- Surrender to God is important.
6.
Basaveśhvara (Basavaṇṇa)
Social and Religious Reformer
- Basavaṇṇa was a royal minister at
Kalyāṇī.
- Later, he became a reformer.
Founder of Lingāyat Movement
The movement:
- Rejected caste discrimination
- Opposed ritualism
- Promoted devotion and honest work
Equality
Basavaṇṇa believed:
- All men and women are spiritually equal.
- A person’s value depends on character, not
social rank.
Vachanas
- He wrote short poems in Kannada called vachanas.
- These poems expressed his spiritual ideas.
7.
Impact of Bhakti Saints
Rāmānuja and Basavaṇṇa:
- Made spirituality simple and personal
- Reduced social barriers
- Influenced south Indian society and culture
deeply
Keywords
- Tribute – Payment made by smaller rulers to powerful
kings.
- Guild – Association of traders or craftsmen.
- Irrigation – Supplying water to fields.
- Bhakti – Devotion to God.
- Vachanas – Short Kannada devotional poems.
Important
Exam Questions
Very Short Questions
- Why did kings need efficient administration?
- What was the mainstay of the economy?
- Who wrote Mānasollāsa?
- Who founded the Lingāyat movement?
- What are vachanas?
Short Answer Questions
- Describe the trade and economy during this
period.
- Explain the ideas of Rāmānujāchārya.
- What reforms were introduced by Basavaṇṇa?
Long Answer Questions
- Explain the governance and economic life
during the 11th and 12th centuries.
- Describe the cultural and religious
developments of this period.
Taking Stock
1.
Change and Continuity
Transitional Period
- The 11th and 12th centuries were a period of
both:
- Change
- Continuity
Some old traditions continued,
while new political and religious developments also appeared.
2.
Turkic Invasions and Their Impact
Major Changes
- Turkic invaders launched military campaigns in
north India.
- Foreign rule began in some parts of north
India.
Effects of Invasions
The invasions caused:
- Plunder of wealth
- Destruction of temples
- Damage to cities
- Destruction of centres of learning
Result
- The political balance of power changed greatly.
3.
Spread of Islam
- Islam spread into India during this period.
- It became a new religion in India’s religious
landscape.
4.
Resistance by Indian Kingdoms
Areas Outside Turkic Control
- Much of north India and all of south India
remained free from Turkic rule during this period.
Wars and Alliances
- Indian kingdoms often fought among themselves.
- Sometimes they formed alliances.
United Resistance
- On some occasions, Indian rulers united
against foreign invaders.
5.
Angkor Wat and Indian Influence Abroad
Angkor Wat Temple
- The famous Angkor Wat Temple in
Cambodia was built in the 12th century by King Sūryavarman II.
Features of the Temple
- Originally dedicated to Viṣhṇu
- Inscriptions were written in:
- Old Khmer
- Sanskrit
Decorations
The temple contains scenes
from:
- Rāmāyaṇa
- Mahābhārata
Architecture
- The temple resembles south Indian temple
architecture.
- Its towers symbolise Mount Meru from
Hindu mythology.
Later Change
- Later, Angkor Wat was gradually converted into
a Buddhist temple.
Indian Influence in Southeast
Asia
- Angkor Wat shows the strong influence of
Indian:
- Religion
- Art
- Architecture
- Culture
on Southeast Asia.
6.
Trade and Economy
Trade Continued
Despite invasions and
conflicts:
- Internal trade continued.
- External trade with foreign regions also
continued.
Merchant Guilds
- Merchant guilds survived and adapted to
changing conditions.
Spread of Indian Culture
Trade also helped spread:
- Indian traditions
- Religion
- Art
- Literature
to:
- Southeast Asia
- China
7.
Growth of Culture and Knowledge
Cultural Continuity
Indian culture remained strong
through:
- New schools of thought
- Religious movements
- Literature
- Scientific works
Languages
Works were written in:
- Sanskrit
- Regional languages
8.
Main Lesson of the Period
This period teaches:
- Resilience during difficult times
- Importance of knowledge and creativity
- Strength of cultural traditions
Keywords
- Transitional Period – Time of change from
one phase to another.
- Plunder – Looting of wealth during war.
- Religious Landscape – Different religions
present in a region.
- Merchant Guilds – Associations of
traders.
- Resilience – Ability to recover from difficulties.
Important
Exam Questions
Very Short Questions
- What major political change occurred during
this period?
- Which new religion spread in India during this
time?
- Who built the Angkor Wat temple?
- Which epics are depicted at Angkor Wat?
- What helped spread Indian culture to Southeast
Asia?
Short Answer Questions
- What were the effects of Turkic invasions on
India?
- Describe the importance of Angkor Wat.
- How did trade continue despite political
disturbances?
Long Answer Questions
- Explain the major changes and continuities
during the 11th and 12th centuries.
- Describe the cultural and economic
developments of this period.
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