Federalism Class 10 Political Science Chapter 2 Social Science SST Note and Exercise NCERT CBSE

 

2. Federalism

Introduction to Federalism

This section introduces the foundational concept of federalism as a system of governance. In board examinations, understanding the structural definition and the scope of the chapter is essential for writing well-organized answers.

Defining Federalism

Federalism is a system of government where power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country. It is a vertical division of power, distinguishing it from horizontal power-sharing (where power is shared among organs like the legislature, executive, and judiciary at the same level).

Key Sub-concepts

• Vertical Division of Power:
• This is the hallmark of modern democratic power-sharing.
• It involves at least two (or more) levels of government.
• It ensures that decision-making authority is not concentrated in one hand, promoting stability and local representation.
• The Federal Framework:
• Theory vs. Practice: The study of federalism involves two aspects: the constitutional legal framework (what is written) and the actual political practice (how it works in reality).
• Constitutional Provisions: These provide the legal backing for federalism, clearly outlining the roles, responsibilities, and limitations of the central and state governments.
• Policies and Politics: These refer to the socio-political dynamics, such as coalition governments or regional movements, that shape how federalism is practiced in India.
• The Third Tier:
• Indian federalism is unique because it explicitly recognizes Local Government (Panchayats and Municipalities) as a formal, third tier of the system.

 

Defining Federalism and its Key Features

This section is fundamental to understanding the structural design of democratic nations. It distinguishes between Unitary and Federal systems and details the essential features that define a true federation.

1. Conceptual Framework: Unitary vs. Federal

• Unitary System: A system where there is only one level of government, or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government. The center can pass orders to lower levels. (Example: Sri Lanka)
• Federal System: A system where power is divided between a central authority and constituent units (States/Provinces).
• Autonomy: Both levels enjoy power independent of the other.
• Accountability: Both governments are separately answerable to the people, not to each other.
• Constraint: The central government cannot unilaterally order the state government to act.

2. Seven Key Features of Federalism

To ensure you hit all points in a board exam, memorize these seven pillars:

1. Multiple Tiers: Two or more levels (or tiers) of government.
2. Separate Jurisdiction: Each tier has its own jurisdiction in legislation, taxation, and administration for the same citizens.
3. Constitutional Guarantee: The existence and authority of each tier are constitutionally guaranteed.
4. Rigidity: Fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be changed unilaterally by one level; it requires the consent of both.
5. Role of Courts: Courts interpret the constitution. The highest court acts as an umpire if disputes arise between tiers.
6. Financial Autonomy: Sources of revenue for each level are specified to ensure financial independence.
7. Dual Objectives: To safeguard and promote the unity of the country while simultaneously accommodating regional diversity.

3. Routes to Federation: "Coming Together" vs. "Holding Together"

This is a classic comparative concept often asked in exams.

Feature	Coming Together Federation	Holding Together Federation
Process	Independent States pool sovereignty to form a bigger unit.	A large country decides to divide its power between states and center.
Motivation	Increase security by pooling sovereignty.	Accommodate diversity within a large nation.
Power Balance	States are usually strong and have equal power.	Center tends to be more powerful; units often have unequal/special powers.
Examples	USA, Switzerland, Australia	India, Spain, Belgium

 

What Makes India a Federal Country?

This section explores how India, despite its vast diversity and complex history of partition and princely states, adopted the principles of federalism to maintain unity.

1. Constitutional Foundation

• "Union of States": While the Indian Constitution does not explicitly use the word "federation," it is structured on federal principles. It declares India a "Union of States."
• Evolution of Tiers: Initially, the Constitution established a two-tier system (Union/Central Government and State Governments). Later, a third tier was added through Panchayats and Municipalities.

2. The Three-Fold Distribution of Legislative Powers

To prevent conflict and define jurisdiction, the Constitution provides three specific lists:

List	Jurisdiction	Subject Matter	Key Rule
Union List	Union Government	National importance (e.g., Defence, Foreign Affairs, Banking, Currency)	Need for uniform policy throughout the country.
State List	State Governments	State/Local importance (e.g., Police, Trade, Agriculture, Irrigation)	Exclusive law-making power.
Concurrent List	Both Union & State	Common interest (e.g., Education, Forest, Trade Unions, Marriage)	Union Law prevails if there is a conflict.

• Residuary Subjects: Subjects that emerged after the Constitution was drafted (e.g., computer software) or those not mentioned in any list. The Union Government has the authority to legislate on these.

3. Asymmetric Federalism: Unequal Powers

Unlike "Coming Together" federations where states have equal power, India’s "Holding Together" model grants different levels of authority:

• Special Status (Article 371): States like Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, and Mizoram have special powers due to peculiar social/historical circumstances. This protects indigenous land rights, culture, and provides preferential employment.
• Union Territories (UTs): Areas too small to be independent states and difficult to merge with existing ones (e.g., Chandigarh, Lakshadweep, Delhi). They lack the powers of a state; the Central Government has special powers to administer them.

4. Safeguarding the Structure

The power-sharing arrangement is considered "basic" to the Constitution, ensuring it cannot be altered easily:

• Rigid Amendment Process: Changes require:
1. A two-thirds majority in both Houses of Parliament.
2. Ratification by the legislatures of at least half of the total States.
• Role of Judiciary: The Supreme Court and High Courts act as the final authority to resolve disputes regarding the division of powers.
• Financial Power: Both levels of government have independent rights to levy taxes and raise resources to carry out their assigned responsibilities.

How is Federalism Practised in India?

While the Constitution provides the framework, the actual success of Indian federalism depends on the nature of democratic politics. The practice of federalism is defined by how we handle linguistic diversity, language policy, and the evolution of Centre-State relations.

1. Linguistic States: The First Test

·        Purpose: In 1947, the map of India was redrawn to create states based on the language spoken by the people.

·        Other Bases: Some states were formed to recognize differences in culture, ethnicity, or geography (e.g., Nagaland, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand).

·        Outcome: Despite initial fears of national disintegration, the creation of linguistic states made the country more united and administration easier.

2. Language Policy: Accommodating Diversity

·        No National Language: The Constitution did not grant "National Language" status to any single language.

·        Official Language: Hindi was identified as the official language, but it is the mother tongue of only about 44% of the population.

·        Scheduled Languages: To safeguard diversity, the Constitution recognizes 22 languages as Scheduled Languages.

o   Candidates can take Central Government exams in any of these languages.

o   States have their own official languages for administration.

·        Flexible Approach: The Central Government avoided imposing Hindi on non-Hindi speaking states. The demand for the continuation of English for official purposes (especially by non-Hindi states like Tamil Nadu) was accepted, demonstrating a flexible and cautious approach to avoid conflicts.

3. Centre-State Relations: The Shift in Power

·        The "One-Party" Era: For a long time, the same party ruled at the Centre and in most States. During this period, the Centre often misused its power to dismiss State governments controlled by rival parties, undermining the federal spirit.

·        The Post-1990 Era (Coalition Era):

o   Rise of Regional Parties: National parties could no longer win a majority alone.

o   Coalition Governments: Major national parties were forced to enter alliances with regional parties to form a government at the Centre.

o   New Culture of Power-Sharing: This forced the Centre to respect the autonomy of State governments.

·        Judicial Protection: A significant Supreme Court judgment made it difficult for the Central Government to dismiss State governments arbitrarily. This solidified federalism, making it more effective today than in the past.

4. Linguistic Diversity (Data Insights)      

·        Census 2011: Recorded over 1300 distinct languages, which were grouped into 121 major languages.

·        Eighth Schedule: Contains the 22 "Scheduled Languages."

·        Key Takeaway: No single language is the mother tongue of the majority of Indians. Even Hindi, the most spoken language, is the mother tongue of less than 50% of the population, even when including second/third language speakers. This confirms that India is one of the most linguistically diverse countries in the world.

Decentralisation in India

This section details the rationale for the third tier of government, the 1992 constitutional amendments that empowered it, and the structure of local self-government in both rural and urban areas.

1. The Rationale for Decentralisation

·        The Problem of Scale: India is vast; many states are larger than European countries in both population and area (e.g., UP is larger than Russia, Maharashtra is comparable to Germany).

·        Efficiency: Local problems are best settled at the local level. Citizens have better knowledge of their own needs, priorities, and efficient ways to manage resources.

·        Democratic Participation: Decentralisation promotes direct participation in decision-making, cultivating a habit of democratic engagement and realizing the ideal of local self-government.

2. The 1992 Constitutional Amendment: A Turning Point

Before 1992, local bodies existed but were ineffective, lacked resources, and were not held with regularity. The 1992 amendment made the third tier powerful and effective:

·        Regular Elections: Mandatory to hold elections to local government bodies.

·        Reservation: Seats reserved for SC, ST, and OBCs; at least one-third of all positions are reserved for women.

·        State Election Commission: An independent body created in each state to conduct these elections.

·        Power/Revenue Sharing: State governments are mandated to share powers and revenue with local bodies.

3. Structure of Local Government

Rural Local Government (Panchayati Raj)

·        Gram Panchayat: The decision-making body for a village/group of villages. Consists of panch (ward members) and a sarpanch (president), directly elected by the village/ward population.

·        Gram Sabha: The oversight body consisting of all voters in the village. It meets at least twice/thrice a year to approve the budget and review performance.

·        Panchayat Samiti / Mandal / Block: A group of Gram Panchayats. Members are elected by all Panchayat members in that area.

·        Zilla Parishad: The district-level body formed by all Panchayat Samitis in the district. Mostly elected, it also includes Lok Sabha MPs, MLAs, and district officials. The Zilla Parishad Chairperson is the political head.

Urban Local Government

·        Municipalities: Set up in smaller towns.

·        Municipal Corporations: Set up in large cities.

·        Governance: Both are controlled by elected bodies.

o   Municipality: Political head is the Municipal Chairperson.

o   Municipal Corporation: Political head is the Mayor.

4. Achievements and Challenges

·        Achievements:

o   Largest democratic experiment globally with roughly 36 lakh elected representatives.

o   Deepened democracy and significantly increased the voice and representation of women.

·        Challenges:

o   Gram Sabhas are not held regularly.

o   State governments have often failed to transfer significant power or adequate financial resources to local bodies.

o   Realization of the ideal of self-government remains a work in progress.

5. Comparative Global Perspective: Participative Democracy

·        Porto Alegre (Brazil): A model of decentralisation where citizens participate directly in creating the municipal budget.

·        Impact: This ensures equitable resource distribution (e.g., better services in poor colonies, protection against unfair eviction).

·        Kerala (India): Similar experiments have been conducted where ordinary citizens have participated in developing plans for their local areas.

 

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Exercises

1. Locate the following States on a blank outline political map of India:

• Manipur: Located in the Northeast.
• Sikkim: Located between Nepal and Bhutan.
• Chhattisgarh: Located in Central India.
• Goa: Located on the West Coast.

2. Identify and shade three federal countries (other than India) on a blank outline political map of the world:

• You can choose from: USA, Canada, Australia, Germany, Russia, or Switzerland.

3. Point out one feature in the practice of federalism in India that is similar to and one feature that is different from that of Belgium:

• Similar: Both are "holding together" federations where the Constitution distributes power between the Centre and the States to accommodate regional diversity.

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• Different: In India, the Union government is significantly more powerful than the State governments, and the central government can even change boundaries, whereas, in Belgium, regional governments were given constitutional powers in 1993 that were no longer dependent on the central government.

4. What is the main difference between a federal form of government and a unitary one?

• In a federal system, power is divided between a central authority and constituent units (states), and both levels are independently answerable to the people.
• In a unitary system, there is only one level of government, or sub-units are subordinate to the central government, which can pass orders to them.
• Example: India is federal; Sri Lanka is unitary.

5. State any two differences between the local government before and after the 1992 Amendment:

1. Elections: Before 1992, elections to local government bodies were not held regularly; now, it is constitutionally mandatory.
2. Powers/Resources: Before 1992, local governments did not have independent powers or resources; now, State governments are required to share some powers and revenue.

6. Fill in the blanks: Since the United States is a "coming together" type of federation, all the constituent States have equal powers and States are strong vis-à-vis the federal government. But India is a "holding together" type of federation and some States have more power than others. In India, the Central (or Union) government has more powers.

7. Language Policy reactions:

• Sangeeta (Stronger Unity): Argument: India's flexible approach helped avoid the conflict and disintegration seen in other countries. Example: Retaining English as an official language alongside Hindi prevented violent conflicts in non-Hindi speaking states.

8. Distinguishing feature of a federal government is:

(d) Governmental power is divided between different levels of government.

 

9. Grouping Subjects:

Union List	State List	Concurrent List
Defence, Banking, Communications	Police, Agriculture, Trade	Education, Forests, Marriages

10. Incorrectly matched pair:

(d) Local governments — Residuary powers. (Residuary powers belong to the Union Government in India, not local governments )

11. Match List I with List II:

1. Union of India — A. Prime Minister

2. State — C. Governor

3. Municipal Corporation — D. Mayor

4. Gram Panchayat — B. Sarpanch

12. Correct statements:

(c) A and B only (Statement C is incorrect because Sri Lanka is unitary; D is incorrect because devolving power to local bodies deepens democracy, it does not stop India from being a federation )

 

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