4: Early Humans and Beginning
of Civilisation
SECTION
A: MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (80)
1.
Which script of the Harappan civilisation has NOT been deciphered till today?
(a)
Cuneiform
(b) Hieroglyphic
(c) Sindhu lipi
(d) Brahmi
Answer: (c) Sindhu lipi
2.
The cuneiform script was used by which civilisation?
(a)
Egyptian
(b) Sumerian (Mesopotamian)
(c) Chinese
(d) Harappan
Answer: (b) Sumerian (Mesopotamian)
3.
The hieroglyphic script belongs to which civilisation?
(a)
Egyptian
(b) Mesopotamian
(c) Chinese
(d) Harappan
Answer: (a) Egyptian
4.
From about which year was the Brahmi script used in India?
(a)
400 CE
(b) 400 BCE
(c) 4000 BCE
(d) 40 BCE
Answer: (b) 400 BCE
5.
Who formalised the Brahmi script in the 3rd century BCE?
(a)
Hammurabi
(b) Ashoka
(c) Sargon
(d) Champollion
Answer: (b) Ashoka
6.
The historical period is said to begin about how many years ago?
(a)
1000 years
(b) 2000 years
(c) 5000 years
(d) 10,000 years
Answer: (c) 5000 years
7.
What percentage of human history falls in the period BEFORE writing was
invented?
(a)
50%
(b) 75%
(c) More than 99%
(d) 25%
Answer: (c) More than 99%
8.
The major source for reconstructing human life before writing is:
(a)
Literature
(b) Coins
(c) Artefacts/tools
(d) Newspapers
Answer: (c) Artefacts/tools
9.
Our early ancestors, from whom modern humans evolved, are known as:
(a)
Hominins
(b) Australopithecines
(c) Neanderthals
(d) Sapiens
Answer: (b) Australopithecines
10.
The word "australopithecus" means:
(a)
Northern ape
(b) Southern ape
(c) Old man
(d) Tool maker
Answer: (b) Southern ape
11.
Cultural evolution of humans took place during which period?
(a)
Holocene only
(b) Quaternary Period
(c) Jurassic Period
(d) Bronze Age only
Answer: (b) Quaternary Period
12.
The Quaternary Period covers approximately how many years?
(a)
2.6 lakh years
(b) 26 lakh years
(c) 260 lakh years
(d) 2.6 million years exactly
Answer: (b) 26 lakh years
13.
Early human ancestors began moving out of Africa around:
(a)
5 million years ago
(b) 2 million years ago
(c) 500,000 years ago
(d) 12,000 years ago
Answer: (b) 2 million years ago
14.
Which was the first hominin to exit Africa?
(a)
Homo habilis
(b) Homo erectus
(c) Homo sapiens
(d) Homo neanderthalensis
Answer: (b) Homo erectus
15.
Homo erectus used which tools?
(a)
Microliths
(b) Hand axes and cleavers
(c) Chopper tools only
(d) Bow and arrow
Answer: (b) Hand axes and cleavers
16.
The second major wave of human movement out of Africa took place around:
(a)
2 million years ago
(b) 125,000 years ago
(c) 12,000 years ago
(d) 300,000 years ago
Answer: (b) 125,000 years ago
17.
Homo sapiens (modern humans) evolved in Africa around:
(a)
2 million years ago
(b) 300,000 years ago
(c) 12,000 years ago
(d) 3.3 million years ago
Answer: (b) 300,000 years ago
18.
A "hominin" is best described as:
(a)
Any wild animal
(b) A tool-maker, including modern humans and human-like ancestors
(c) Only Homo sapiens
(d) A type of plant
Answer: (b) A tool-maker, including
modern humans and human-like ancestors
19.
Geographically, the "Old World" refers to:
(a)
Only Africa
(b) Africa, Asia, and Europe
(c) Only Asia
(d) The Americas
Answer: (b) Africa, Asia, and Europe
20.
The earliest stone tools were made around:
(a)
1 million years ago
(b) 2 million years ago
(c) 3.3 million years ago
(d) 300,000 years ago
Answer: (c)
3.
3 million years ago
21. Tools made by early humans are sometimes called:
(a)
Extra-corporal limbs
(b) Internal organs
(c) Fossils
(d) Ziggurats
Answer: (a) Extra-corporal limbs
22.
A "fossil" is:
(a)
A modern tool
(b) Preserved remains of plants/animals/humans from the past
(c) A type of writing
(d) A type of pottery
Answer: (b) Preserved remains of
plants/animals/humans from the past
23.
"Homo habilis" means:
(a)
Wise man
(b) Handy man
(c) Upright man
(d) Strong man
Answer: (b) Handy man
24.
Homo habilis lived mainly in:
(a)
Europe
(b) Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania and Kenya
(c) China
(d) Mesopotamia
Answer: (b) Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania
and Kenya
25.
Homo neanderthalensis lived in:
(a)
Africa only
(b) Europe and Southwest Asia
(c) China
(d) India only
Answer: (b) Europe and Southwest Asia
26.
Homo neanderthalensis lived till about:
(a)
5,000 years ago
(b) 40,000 years ago
(c) 2 million years ago
(d) 300,000 years ago
Answer: (b) 40,000 years ago
27.
Which is the only human species living on Earth today?
(a)
Homo habilis
(b) Homo erectus
(c) Homo neanderthalensis
(d) Homo sapiens
Answer: (d) Homo sapiens
28.
The Stone Age is broadly divided into how many stages?
(a)
Two
(b) Three
(c) Four
(d) Five
Answer: (b) Three (Palaeolithic, Mesolithic,
Neolithic)
29.
The word "palaeo" means:
(a)
New
(b) Old
(c) Stone
(d) Metal
Answer: (b) Old
30.
The word "lithic" means:
(a)
Wood
(b) Stone
(c) Bone
(d) Copper
Answer: (b) Stone
31.
Which period is described as a "transitional phase" between hunting-gathering
and agriculture?
(a)
Palaeolithic
(b) Mesolithic
(c) Neolithic
(d) Bronze Age
Answer: (b) Mesolithic
32.
The Neolithic Revolution refers to the shift to:
(a)
Hunting
(b) A food-producing way of life (agriculture)
(c) Iron tools
(d) Writing
Answer: (b) A food-producing way of
life (agriculture)
33.
The Chalcolithic period is also known as the:
(a)
Iron and Stone Age
(b) Copper and Stone Age
(c) Bronze and Stone Age
(d) New Stone Age
Answer: (b) Copper and Stone Age
34.
Bronze is made by mixing copper with:
(a)
Iron
(b) Tin
(c) Zinc
(d) Gold
Answer: (b) Tin
35.
The oldest human settlement site in the Indian subcontinent, dated to about 2
million years ago, is:
(a)
Mehrgarh
(b) Attirampakkam
(c) Bhimbetka
(d) Kalibangan
Answer: (b) Attirampakkam
36.
Attirampakkam is located in which state?
(a)
Karnataka
(b) Tamil Nadu
(c) Gujarat
(d) Rajasthan
Answer: (b) Tamil Nadu
37.
Isampur, dated to 1.2 million years ago, is located in:
(a)
Karnataka
(b) Tamil Nadu
(c) Haryana
(d) Madhya Pradesh
Answer: (a) Karnataka
38.
Middle Palaeolithic tools mainly included:
(a)
Handaxes and cleavers only
(b) Scrapers, borers, and points
(c) Pottery
(d) Copper tools
Answer: (b) Scrapers, borers, and
points
39.
A "burin" is:
(a)
A type of pottery
(b) A stone tool used to engrave bones and shells
(c) A farming tool
(d) A weight measure
Answer: (b) A stone tool used to
engrave bones and shells
40.
Homo sapiens spread across Australia and the Americas between:
(a)
2 million–500,000 years ago
(b) 50,000–12,000 years ago
(c) 7000–4000 BCE
(d) 3300–2600 BCE
Answer: (b) 50,000–12,000 years ago
41.
Around how many years ago did Earth's climate become warmer, marking the start
of the Mesolithic period?
(a)
2 million
(b) 125,000
(c) 12,000
(d) 5,000
Answer: (c) 12,000
42.
The Mesolithic period saw the first-ever:
(a)
Writing system
(b) Population explosion in human history
(c) City-state
(d) Bronze tool
Answer: (b) Population explosion in
human history
43.
Bhimbetka, a World Heritage Site with painted rock shelters, is located in:
(a)
Madhya Pradesh
(b) Rajasthan
(c) Gujarat
(d) Tamil Nadu
Answer: (a) Madhya Pradesh
44.
Which was the mainstay of the subsistence economy in the Mesolithic period?
(a)
Farming
(b) Fishing
(c) Trade
(d) Pottery making
Answer: (b) Fishing
45.
The hallmark of the Neolithic Revolution was:
(a)
Use of iron
(b) Domestication of animals and plants
(c) Invention of writing
(d) Building of pyramids
Answer: (b) Domestication of animals
and plants
46.
Mehrgarh, the oldest Neolithic site in the Indian subcontinent, is located on
which river?
(a)
Indus
(b) Bolan River
(c) Ganga
(d) Sarasvatī
Answer: (b) Bolan River
47.
Mehrgarh dates back to about:
(a)
2600 BCE
(b) 4000 BCE
(c) 7000 BCE
(d) 3300 BCE
Answer: (c) 7000 BCE
48.
At Mehrgarh, people raised which particular type of cattle?
(a)
Buffalo
(b) Zebu humped bull
(c) Yak
(d) Ox only
Answer: (b) Zebu humped bull
49.
Mehrgarh people became known as "Chalcolithic people" by:
(a)
7000 BCE
(b) 4000 BCE
(c) 2600 BCE
(d) 1300 BCE
Answer: (b) 4000 BCE
50.
By 2500 BCE, most of the Indian subcontinent was occupied by:
(a)
Neolithic agricultural communities
(b) Iron Age empires
(c) Roman settlers
(d) Only hunter-gatherers
Answer: (a) Neolithic agricultural
communities
51.
The Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation is dated to have emerged by about:
(a)
7000 BCE
(b) 4000 BCE
(c) 2600 BCE
(d) 1300 BCE
Answer: (c) 2600 BCE
52.
At which sites does the Pre-Harappan phase date between 7000–5500 BCE?
(a)
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa
(b) Bhirrana and Kunal
(c) Lothal and Dholavira
(d) Rakhigarhi and Kalibangan
Answer: (b) Bhirrana and Kunal
53.
Kalibangan is famous for evidence of:
(a)
A dockyard
(b) Ploughed fields showing double-crop cultivation
(c) A ziggurat
(d) A pyramid
Answer: (b) Ploughed fields showing
double-crop cultivation
54.
The elaborate water harvesting system of deep interconnected tanks was found
at:
(a)
Lothal
(b) Dholavira
(c) Kalibangan
(d) Mehrgarh
Answer: (b) Dholavira
55.
The huge dockyard, built entirely of burnt bricks, was found at:
(a)
Dholavira
(b) Lothal
(c) Harappa
(d) Kunal
Answer: (b) Lothal
56.
Early Harappans built check dams known as:
(a)
Ziggurats
(b) Gabarbands
(c) Mastabas
(d) Ka
Answer: (b) Gabarbands
57.
The Harappan system of weights followed which pattern for smaller units?
(a)
Decimal (multiples of 10)
(b) Binary multiples (1, 2, 4, 8, 16)
(c) Roman numerals
(d) Random units
Answer: (b) Binary multiples (1, 2, 4,
8, 16)
58.
Evidence of Early Harappan bead production has been found at Harappa, Kunal,
and:
(a)
Datrana
(b) Ur
(c) Memphis
(d) Anyang
Answer: (a) Datrana
59.
The earliest city-based civilisation in the world emerged in:
(a)
Egypt
(b) Mesopotamia
(c) China
(d) India
Answer: (b) Mesopotamia
60.
"Mesopotamia" is a Greek word meaning:
(a)
Land of the rising sun
(b) Land in between
(c) Land of gods
(d) Black land
Answer: (b) Land in between
61.
Mesopotamia lies between which two rivers?
(a)
Nile and Indus
(b) Euphrates and Tigris
(c) Huang He and Yangtze
(d) Ganga and Sarasvatī
Answer: (b) Euphrates and Tigris
62.
The "fertile crescent" refers to the foothills of which mountain
ranges?
(a)
Himalayas and Hindu Kush
(b) Zagros and Taurus
(c) Alps and Pyrenees
(d) Atlas Mountains
Answer: (b) Zagros and Taurus
63.
Which was the first Mesopotamian civilisation to become city-based?
(a)
Akkadian
(b) Sumerian
(c) Assyrian
(d) Babylonian
Answer: (b) Sumerian
64.
A "ziggurat" is:
(a)
An Egyptian pyramid
(b) A stepped pyramid-shaped Mesopotamian temple
(c) A Chinese oracle bone
(d) A Harappan seal
Answer: (b) A stepped pyramid-shaped
Mesopotamian temple
65.
The Sumerians started writing (cuneiform) around:
(a)
3300 BCE
(b) 2334 BCE
(c) 1792 BCE
(d) 2600 BCE
Answer: (a) 3300 BCE
66.
Cuneiform was written using a wedge-shaped stylus pressed into:
(a)
Papyrus
(b) Damp clay tablets
(c) Stone slabs
(d) Animal bones
Answer: (b) Damp clay tablets
67.
The Sumerians are credited with inventing:
(a)
Paper currency
(b) The wheeled cart and sailboat
(c) The Great Wall
(d) Mummification
Answer: (b) The wheeled cart and
sailboat
68.
The Sumerian number system, based on 60, gave us:
(a)
The metric system
(b) The 60-minute hour and 360-degree circle
(c) Roman numerals
(d) The decimal system
Answer: (b) The 60-minute hour and
360-degree circle
69.
The power of the Sumerians was overshadowed in 2334 BCE by:
(a)
The Assyrians
(b) The Akkadians
(c) The Babylonians
(d) The Egyptians
Answer: (b) The Akkadians
70.
Sargon's cuneiform tablets mention trade with Dilmun, Magan, and Meluhha.
"Meluhha" is identified with:
(a)
Egypt
(b) China
(c) The Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation
(d) Assyria
Answer: (c) The Sindhu-Sarasvatī
civilisation
71.
"Dilmun" corresponds to present-day:
(a)
Oman
(b) Bahrain
(c) Iran
(d) Turkey
Answer: (b) Bahrain
72.
The Assyrian civilisation was centred on the city of:
(a)
Ur
(b) Akkad
(c) Assur
(d) Babylon
Answer: (c) Assur
73.
The Code of Hammurabi was compiled by the ruler of which civilisation?
(a)
Assyrian
(b) Babylonian
(c) Sumerian
(d) Egyptian
Answer: (b) Babylonian
74.
Hammurabi ascended the throne in:
(a)
1900 BCE
(b) 1792 BCE
(c) 2154 BCE
(d) 2334 BCE
Answer: (b) 1792 BCE
75.
The Babylonians lost their prominence due to repeated attacks from:
(a)
The Hittites
(b) The Egyptians
(c) The Chinese
(d) The Harappans
Answer: (a) The Hittites
76.
The Rosetta Stone, key to deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphics, was found by:
(a)
Jean-François Champollion
(b) Pierre Bouchard
(c) Herodotus
(d) Hammurabi
Answer: (b) Pierre Bouchard
77.
The Egyptian hieroglyphic script was finally deciphered in 1822 by:
(a)
Pierre Bouchard
(b) Jean-François Champollion
(c) Herodotus
(d) Sargon
Answer: (b) Jean-François Champollion
78.
Egyptians called their land "Kemet," meaning:
(a)
The gift of the river
(b) The black
(c) The sacred land
(d) The eternal land
Answer: (b) The black
79.
The process of preserving a dead body in ancient Egypt was called:
(a)
Ziggurat building
(b) Mummification
(c) Cuneiform writing
(d) Sedentism
Answer: (b) Mummification
80.
The Great Wall of China was initially built from around:
(a)
680 BCE
(b) 221 BCE
(c) 1600 BCE
(d) 3300 BCE
Answer:
(a) 680 BCE
SECTION
B: SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (40)
1. What is the main source of
information about human history before writing was invented? The main sources are archaeological
evidence such as tools, fossils, and other artefacts made and used by early
humans, since no written records exist from this period.
2. Why has the Harappan script not
been deciphered?
The Harappan script (Sindhu lipi) is pictographic and very short in the
inscriptions found; no bilingual text (like the Rosetta Stone for Egypt) has
been found to help scholars match it to a known language.
3. Name the three early writing
systems mentioned as contemporary to the Harappan civilisation. Cuneiform (Sumerian, Mesopotamia),
Hieroglyphic (Egypt), and the Harappan pictographic script (Sindhu lipi,
undeciphered).
4. What is Brahmi script and when
was it used?
Brahmi was a script used from about 400 BCE in southern India and the Ganga
Valley; it was later formalised by Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE.
5. Differentiate briefly between
biological and cultural evolution. Biological evolution refers to the gradual physical
and genetic changes through which early ancestors (Australopithecines) evolved
into Homo sapiens, while cultural evolution refers to how humans adapted to
their surroundings using tools, techniques, and technology.
6. Who were the Australopithecines? Australopithecines were the early
ancestors of humans; the name means "southern ape" (australis =
southern, pithecus = primates), and they gradually evolved into modern Homo
sapiens.
7. When and from where did early
humans begin to move out of Africa? Early human ancestors began moving out of Africa
around 2 million years ago, with Homo erectus being the first hominin to exit the
continent.
8. What tools did Homo erectus use,
and what is their significance?
Homo erectus used hand axes and cleavers. Their significance lies in the fact
that these tools have been found in Asia and Europe, proving that Homo erectus
dispersed out of Africa between 2 million and 0.5 million years ago.
9. What does the term "Old
World" refer to?
"Old World" refers to the geographical area comprising Africa, Asia,
and Europe, where the earliest human settlements of the palaeolithic period
were found.
10. Define "hominin." A hominin is a member of the group
that includes modern humans and their early human-like tool-making ancestors;
the term distinguishes tool-making humans from other animals.
11. What are fossils, and how are
they formed?
Fossils are preserved remains, traces, or impressions of plants, animals, or
humans from the distant past. They form when these remains get buried under
layers of earth and slowly turn into stone over thousands or millions of years.
12. Why are tools sometimes called
"extra-corporal limbs"?
Tools are called extra-corporal limbs because they function as extensions of
the human body, helping people perform tasks (like cutting or digging) that
they could not accomplish with their hands alone.
13. Name the four types of early
human ancestors mentioned in the chapter along with where they lived. Homo habilis (Olduvai Gorge,
Tanzania and Kenya), Homo erectus (Eastern African Rift Valley), Homo
neanderthalensis (Europe and Southwest Asia), and Homo sapiens (worldwide,
modern humans).
14. What does "Homo
habilis" mean, and what tools did they make? Homo habilis means "handy
man." They made chopper stone tools and lived in Africa, especially the
Olduvai Gorge.
15. Why is the Palaeolithic period
called the "Old Stone Age"? Because "palaeo" means old and
"lithic" means stone; this period is characterised by the use of
large, simple stone tools.
16. What is the significance of
Attirampakkam and Isampur?
Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu, 1.5–1.7 million years ago) and Isampur (Karnataka,
1.2 million years ago) are among the oldest Palaeolithic sites in the Indian
subcontinent, showing evidence of animal fossils and large cutting tools like
handaxes and cleavers.
17. What developments took place in
the later Palaeolithic period?
Humans invented the bow and arrow, made blade and microblade tools, hunted
small game, developed symbolic communication, painted cave walls, used body
pigments, and made the first beads of stone, bone, and shell.
18. What caused the population
explosion during the Mesolithic period? Around 12,000 years ago, Earth's climate became
warmer, forests and grasslands expanded, and a wider variety of resources
(small game, fish, wild grains) became available, leading to the first-ever
population explosion in human history.
19. What is the significance of
Bhimbetka?
Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh is a World Heritage Site containing hundreds of
painted rock shelters with Mesolithic and earlier human occupation, showing
that art flourished during this period.
20. What was the hallmark of the
Neolithic Revolution?
The hallmark of the Neolithic Revolution was the domestication of select
animals and plants, bringing them under human control, along with the
development of new breeds through cultivation and husbandry.
21. How were Neolithic tools
different from Palaeolithic/Mesolithic tools? While hunter-gatherers made tools
for procuring food, Neolithic farmers made tools for food production and
processing, and they also developed earthenware pottery in various shapes and
sizes.
22. Why is Mehrgarh important? Mehrgarh, on the Bolan River
(present-day Pakistan), is the oldest Neolithic site and earliest agricultural
village in the Indian subcontinent, dating back to about 7000 BCE, where people
built sun-dried brick houses, cultivated wheat and barley, and raised animals.
23. What crops and animals did the
people of Mehrgarh use?
They cultivated wheat and barley and raised sheep, goats, and Indian cattle,
particularly the zebu humped bull.
24. What is meant by the "Early
Harappan" stage?
The Early Harappan stage refers to the period when regional Chalcolithic styles
in pottery, beads, and crafts became standardised by about 2500 BCE, showing
cultural continuity that eventually led to the Mature Harappan civilisation.
25. What evidence do we have of
double-crop cultivation among the Harappans? At Kalibangan, ploughed fields show
horizontal and vertical furrows, indicating double-crop cultivation, similar to
the seasonal Rabi and Kharif cultivation practised even today.
26. Describe the water management
system found at Dholavira.
At Dholavira, water from two nearby streams was diverted through dams and
canals into a series of deep, interconnected tanks built of stone and mud-brick
(some cut into bedrock) to conserve water within the site.
27. What was unique about the
Harappan system of weights and measures? Harappans followed a binary multiple system (1, 2, 4,
8, 16, etc.) for weighing smaller units and multiples of ten for larger
denominations, using cubical stone weights found at several sites.
28. Why is Mesopotamia called
"the land in between"?
Mesopotamia is a Greek name meaning "land in between," referring to
the land drained by and lying between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in West
Asia.
29. What was a ziggurat, and what
was its function?
A ziggurat was a tower-like, stepped pyramid-shaped temple; its top was a holy
place, and the surrounding area contained palaces and royal storehouses. It
served as the city's religious and economic centre, as well as its treasury.
30. What was cuneiform, and who
invented it?
Cuneiform was one of the earliest writing systems, invented by the Sumerians
around 3300 BCE. It was written by pressing a wedge-shaped stylus into soft
clay tablets.
31. What information do cuneiform
tablets provide about Mesopotamian life? Cuneiform tablets give us a glimpse into Mesopotamian
myths and epics, hymns, law codes, educational treatises, and records of
farming and craft activities.
32. What were the major achievements
of the Sumerians?
The Sumerians invented the wheeled cart and sailboat, developed a number system
based on 60 (giving us the 60-minute hour and 360-degree circle), and were the
first to build dams, canals, and use mud/burnt bricks.
33. Who was Sargon, and why is he
important?
Sargon was an important Akkadian king whose cuneiform tablets mention
Mesopotamian trade with Dilmun, Magan, and Meluhha (identified with the
Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation), showing evidence of long-distance trade
contact.
34. What was the Code of Hammurabi? The Code of Hammurabi was a compilation
of rules and regulations for civil and social conduct throughout the Babylonian
empire, made by King Hammurabi; it served as a foundational model for many
future legal systems.
35. What led to the decline of the
Babylonians?
Repeated attacks by the Hittites and other rising powers, along with
environmental degradation, pressure on agricultural lands, and internal
political and economic problems, gradually weakened Babylonian control.
36. How was the Egyptian script
deciphered?
Pierre Bouchard found the Rosetta Stone in 1799, which contained the same text
in three scripts, including Greek. Since Greek could still be read, this
provided a "bilingual dictionary," and in 1822, Jean-François
Champollion finally deciphered the Egyptian script.
37. Describe the Egyptian calendar. The Egyptian calendar had three
seasons of four months each — Inundation (autumn), Peret/growing (winter), and
Shemu/harvest (summer) — based on the rising of Sirius (the Dog Star), with a
year of 365 days (12 months × 30 days + 5 extra days).
38. What is mummification, and why
was it practised?
Mummification was the process of removing internal organs (except the heart),
drying the body with natron, oiling it, wrapping it in linen, and burying it
with rituals. It was practised because Egyptians believed each person had a
"ka" (spiritual double) that survived after death if the body was
preserved.
39. Describe the sources used to
reconstruct early Chinese history. Chinese history is reconstructed from records kept by
official historiographers and from "oracle bones" — animal bones and
tortoise shells heated until they cracked, with the crack patterns interpreted
to foretell the future and reveal people's hopes and fears.
40. What was the significance of the
Silk Route for China?
Silk, known to the Chinese since the Neolithic period, became a major item of
external trade during the Han dynasty (2nd century BCE), and the entire trade
route came to be known as the "Silk Route," connecting China with the
wider world including India.
SECTION
C: LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (40)
1. Explain the difference in human
history "before" and "after" the invention of writing, with
reference to Fig. 4.3.
Before writing, more than 99% of human history (from about 3 million to 5000
years ago) is covered, and the main sources for reconstruction are tools,
implements, and other artefacts made by humans, since it is generally difficult
to understand people's thoughts and ideas from this period; the measurement of
time is only approximate. After writing (the last 5000 years, including the
present, which is less than 1% of human history), both material remains and
written documents help us reconstruct the past; literature provides information
about names, events, and social, political, and cultural life, and dating of cultures
and events becomes relatively accurate because written documents mention
specific dates such as coronations and wars.
2. Describe the process of
biological and cultural evolution of humans. Biological evolution refers to the
gradual physical and genetic changes through which our early ancestors, the
Australopithecines, evolved over millions of years into modern human beings,
Homo sapiens. Cultural evolution, on the other hand, explains how humans
adapted to their surroundings during the Quaternary Period (the last 26 lakh
years) by developing tools, techniques, and other forms of technology to
survive changing climatic and environmental conditions. Over time, human ways
of life changed from hunting and gathering to agriculture and food production, and
the ability to produce surplus food and material goods laid the foundation for
the emergence of civilisation. Studying early human history thus helps us
understand this long process of biological and cultural change in relation to
environmental transformation.
3. Trace the migration of early
humans out of Africa.
It is generally agreed that our earliest ancestors evolved and lived in Africa
and began to move out of the continent around 2 million years ago. Homo
erectus, an early human ancestor equipped with stone tools such as hand axes
and cleavers, was the first hominin to exit Africa; these tools have been found
in other parts of Asia and Europe, indicating their African origin and
dispersion between 2 million and 0.5 million years ago. Another major wave of
movement out of Africa took place around 125,000 years ago, associated with
early Homo sapiens (modern humans), who had evolved in Africa around 300,000
years ago. These modern humans gradually spread all over the world, including
Australia and the Americas, between 50,000 and 12,000 years ago, eventually
populating the entire globe.
4. How do archaeologists reconstruct
the lives of early human ancestors? Explain with examples. Archaeologists explore early human
sites to uncover clues such as tools, bones, and other objects left behind by
our ancestors. Each clue helps them build a picture of how people lived long
ago. To better understand these clues, archaeologists also experiment by making
and using similar tools themselves; this helps them learn how early humans
created, used, and depended on these objects in daily life. For example, at
Indian sites like Attirampakkam and Isampur, discoveries of animal fossils
along with handaxes, cleavers, scrapers, and choppers made of quartzite and
limestone tell us that these tools were used to chop meat, dig tubers, scrape
animal skin, and extract bone marrow. Similarly, the discovery of fossils and
tools at other sites worldwide (such as Olduvai Gorge) allows archaeologists to
identify which human ancestor lived where and what kind of technology they
used.
5. Describe the evolutionary
sequence of human ancestors as shown in Fig. 4.6. The skulls of early humans show a
clear evolutionary sequence. Homo habilis ("handy man") lived in
Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania and Kenya, between 2 and 6 million years ago, and made
simple chopper stone tools. Their successors, Homo erectus, lived in the
Eastern African Rift Valley around 2 million years ago and invented handaxes
and cleavers; they were among the first to migrate out of Africa into Europe
and Asia. Homo neanderthalensis lived in Europe and Southwest Asia until about
40,000 years ago and made Middle Palaeolithic flake tools. Finally, living
humans, or Homo sapiens, are the only human species living today; while all
these ancestors were tool makers, it was Homo sapiens who developed complex
technologies. Observing the skulls also shows a gradual straightening of the
face across this evolutionary sequence.
6. Explain the different periods of
early human history shown in Fig. 4.7, from Palaeolithic to Iron Age. Early human history is divided into
distinct periods based on technological progress. The Palaeolithic (Old Stone
Age) was characterised by a hunting-gathering lifestyle and the use of simple
stone tools. The Mesolithic period saw the use of microlithic (tiny stone)
tools and represented a transitional phase between hunting-gathering and
agriculture. The Neolithic Revolution then marked a major shift, leading to the
Neolithic (New Stone Age) period, characterised by agriculture, settled life,
domestication of animals, and polished stone tools. Alongside this, the
Chalcolithic (Copper and Stone Age) period saw the use of copper along with
stone tools and early metallurgy. This progressed into the Bronze Age, marked
by the development of bronze metallurgy (mixing copper and tin), expansion of
trade, towns, and early civilisations. Finally, the Iron Age saw widespread use
of iron metallurgy, producing stronger tools and weapons and more advanced
societies.
7. Describe the tools and lifestyle
of Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers in the Indian subcontinent. In the Indian subcontinent, the
oldest human settlement dates back to about 2 million years ago. Attirampakkam
in Tamil Nadu is dated to about 1.5–1.7 million years ago, and Isampur in
Karnataka is dated to 1.2 million years ago. At these sites, animal fossils and
large cutting tools, including handaxes and cleavers, along with stone scrapers
and choppers made of quartzite and limestone, have been found; these were used
to chop animal meat, dig out tubers, scrape animal skin, and cleave animal
bones to extract protein-rich marrow. Further progress in hunting and gathering
was reflected in the making of smaller stone tools, including scrapers, borers,
and points, which indicated improved hunting efficiency through sharp-tipped
projectiles. Later, humans invented the bow and arrow, as well as
parallel-sided blade and microblade tools, and hunted small game animals. They
also developed symbolic communication, decorated cave walls with paintings,
used body pigments, and produced the first beads of stone, bone, and shell.
8. What changes occurred during the
Mesolithic period, and why is Bhimbetka significant? Around 12,000 years ago, Earth's
climate became warmer, leading to significant environmental changes — forests
and grasslands expanded into areas previously covered by ice sheets. This
offered a wider variety of resources, including small game animals, fish, and
edible wild grains, leading to the first-ever population explosion in human
history. A variety of microlithic tools enabled people to gather aquatic food,
both marine and freshwater, and fishing became the mainstay of their
subsistence economy. Art activity also flourished during this time, and new
habitats such as caves and rock shelters were frequently occupied. The World
Heritage Site of Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh is significant because it contains
hundreds of painted rock shelters showing Mesolithic and earlier human
occupation, providing valuable evidence of early human art and daily life.
9. Explain the Neolithic Revolution
and its significance for human civilisation. As hunter-gatherers gained adequate
familiarity with seasons and different types of food resources, there was a
gradual transition to a food-producing way of life, known as the Neolithic
Revolution. Its hallmark was the domestication of select animals and plants,
bringing them under human control, along with the development of new breeds
through cultivation and husbandry. While hunter-gatherers made tools for procuring
food, Neolithic farmers made tools for food production and processing, and they
developed a variety of earthenware pottery in various shapes and sizes. They
utilised several raw materials and resources and established the first village
settlements, laying the foundations for the later urban revolution. This
transition, however, did not happen at the same time everywhere; it occurred at
different periods in different regions of the world, such as West Asia (wheat
and barley), India (millets and rice), and China (millets and rice), showing
that the Neolithic Revolution was a gradual, regionally varied process that
ultimately paved the way for the rise of civilisation.
10. Describe the Neolithic
settlement of Mehrgarh and its importance to Indian history. Mehrgarh, located on the Bolan
River in present-day Pakistan, is the oldest Neolithic site in the Indian
subcontinent and the earliest agricultural village, dating back to about 7000
BCE. Its people built handmade sun-dried brick houses and granaries, buried
their dead in graves, and made a variety of ornaments from semi-precious stones
such as lapis lazuli, carnelian, and shells. They cultivated wheat and barley
and raised sheep, goats, and Indian cattle, particularly the zebu humped bull.
They were also the first to make copper objects, entering the metal age and
becoming known as Chalcolithic people by about 4000 BCE. This laid the basis
for the Bronze Age Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation, which emerged around 3500
BCE. By 2500 BCE, most of the Indian subcontinent was occupied by Neolithic
agricultural communities, showing how Mehrgarh's innovations spread and shaped
the foundations of later Indian civilisation.
11. Trace the development of the
Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation from its Neolithic roots to the Early Harappan
stage. The
Neolithic way of life that emerged around 7000 BCE at Mehrgarh in the foothills
of Baluchistan spread into the middle and upper Indus valley and further east.
Some of these settlements mastered the extraction of copper from ores around
4000 BCE, becoming the earliest Chalcolithic sites in the subcontinent and
marking the beginning of the Bronze Age. The introduction of copper tools in
the fertile alluvial plains of the Indus and Ghaggar-Sarasvatī basins enhanced
productivity, leading to increased prosperity and large-scale pottery
production with diverse regional styles from 4000 BCE onwards. At some sites in
the dried river belt of Sarasvatī, such as Bhirrana and Kunal, the Pre-Harappan
phase began between 7000 and 5500 BCE. Many of these regional styles evolved
over time and became standard features of the Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation by
about 2500 BCE — a stage described as Early Harappan, showing cultural
continuity in pottery traditions, beads, bangles, terracotta objects, and
copper working, along with the beginnings of perimeter walls, seals, and
possibly the Harappan script. These technological and economic developments
during the Early Harappan period eventually led to the emergence of the urban
centres of the Mature Harappan civilisation by 2600 BCE.
12. Discuss the evidence of water
management and irrigation among the Harappans. The Harappans developed
sophisticated water management systems adapted to their environment. The Early
Harappans in the foothills of Baluchistan built check dams known as
"gabarbands" across small streams to enhance irrigation. This
tradition evolved into more advanced systems, such as the elaborate water
harvesting system at Dholavira in Kachchh, where water from two nearby streams
was diverted through dams and canals into a series of deep, interconnected
tanks built of stone and mud-brick (some cut into bedrock) to conserve water
within the site boundary. Similarly, the huge dockyard at Lothal, built
entirely of burnt bricks, demonstrates the Harappans' architectural and water
management skills. At Kalibangan, archaeologists found ploughed fields with
horizontal and vertical furrows, indicating double-crop cultivation similar to
the seasonal Rabi and Kharif cultivation practised even today — showing that
this agricultural tradition is nearly 5,000 years old.
13. Explain the significance of
standard weights and measures in the Harappan civilisation. Harappans had their own standard
systems of weight and measurement, evident from their meticulously planned
settlements and efficient interregional trade practices. They followed a binary
multiple system (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc.) for weighing smaller units and used
multiples of ten for larger denominations. Such cubical stone weights have been
reported from several sites. This standardisation was crucial because it
allowed for consistent measurement across a vast and geographically dispersed
civilisation, which would have been essential for maintaining trust and
efficiency in long-distance trade. Without a standard system of weights, trade
and commerce across the extensive Harappan network would have been severely
disrupted, as merchants and buyers in different regions would have had no
reliable common basis for exchange.
14. Describe the four major early
world civilisations and explain why rivers were important to their growth. Four early world civilisations
emerged independently in river plains: the Harappan civilisation along the
Sindhu and Sarasvatī rivers, the Mesopotamian civilisation around the Euphrates
and Tigris rivers in West Asia, the Egyptian civilisation along the Nile River,
and the Chinese civilisation in the Huang He basin in northern China. Rivers
were important because they provided fertile soil through periodic flooding
(ideal for agriculture), a reliable source of water for irrigation and daily
use, and routes for transport and trade. This allowed communities to produce
agricultural surplus, support larger populations, and develop specialised
crafts, administration, and trade networks — the essential foundations of urban
civilisation. Geographically, Mesopotamia and the Indus/Ghaggar-Sarasvatī
valleys were closer to each other, which facilitated strong trade contacts
between the Mesopotamian and Harappan civilisations, whereas Egypt and China
have little tangible evidence of direct contact with the Sindhu-Sarasvatī
civilisation.
15. Describe the rise of the
Sumerian civilisation and its major achievements. The Sumerian civilisation was the
earliest to evolve into a city-based civilisation, at Ur and several other
cities in Sumer (present-day southern Iraq) in southern Mesopotamia. The
Sumerians were the first to build a system of dams and canals for irrigation
and were also the first to use mud bricks and burnt bricks in constructing
houses, defensive walls, and other structures. They worshipped multiple gods believed
to control natural forces like floods and winds, and built a grand temple
called a ziggurat for each city's chief god, around which the city grew; all
economic activities such as agriculture, trade, and transport of goods were
tied to the temple authority, and entry to the sacred temple was restricted to
high priests and priestesses, reflecting a clear social hierarchy. The
Sumerians also made several remarkable inventions: the wheeled cart, the
sailboat, and a number system based on 60, which gave us the 60-minute hour,
60-second minute, and 360-degree circle still used today.
16. Explain the development and
significance of cuneiform writing. The Sumerians were the first to start writing, around
3300 BCE, and their writing system is known as cuneiform because of the
wedge-shaped marks pressed onto damp clay tablets using sharp wedge-shaped
reeds. Its scribes enjoyed high status in society, similar to priests and
priestesses, and by 3000 BCE, cuneiform was widely used across Mesopotamia by
different city-states, even though they spoke different languages, such as
Sumerian and Akkadian. The cuneiform tablets give us a valuable glimpse into
the lives and beliefs of the Mesopotamians — their myths and epics (such as the
Epic of Gilgamesh), hymns, law codes (such as the Code of Hammurabi), and
educational treatises. Tablets were also used to keep records of farming and
craft activities, especially of potters, seal cutters, shipbuilders,
carpenters, and farm workers. Since cuneiform has been deciphered (unlike the
Harappan script), it allows historians to understand Mesopotamian civilisation
in much greater depth and accuracy than is currently possible for the Harappan
civilisation.
17. Describe the rise and fall of
the Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian civilisations. The power of the Sumerians was
overshadowed in 2334 BCE by the emergence of a new city-state centred on Akkad,
in central Mesopotamia; its people spoke Akkadian, a different language, but
used the same cuneiform script. Akkadian records document the consolidation of
power over different regions of Mesopotamia and the establishment of the
world's first dynastic empire, a period which also saw the evolution of
creative literature. The Akkadian empire lost supremacy around 2154 BCE to a
new city-state, Assur, in northern Mesopotamia; the Assyrian civilisation that
followed lasted until early 1700 BCE, spreading its dominance across
Mesopotamia and neighbouring regions. Meanwhile, a new city-state, Babylonia,
gained dominance in central Mesopotamia from 1900 BCE onwards, with its glory
beginning under Hammurabi (1792 BCE), who expanded the small city-state into a
large empire and compiled the Code of Hammurabi. By the end of 1400 BCE,
however, the Babylonians had lost their earlier prominence due to repeated
attacks by the Hittites and other rising powers, combined with environmental
degradation, pressure on agricultural lands, and internal political and
economic problems.
18. Discuss the trade relationship
between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilisations. Mesopotamia and the
Indus/Ghaggar-Sarasvatī valleys were geographically closer to each other than
to Egypt or China, which facilitated strong contact and trade between the
Mesopotamian and Harappan civilisations. The cuneiform tablets of the important
Akkadian king Sargon mention Mesopotamian trade with the eastern territories of
Dilmun, Magan, and Meluhha. Meluhha is generally identified with the
Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation, while Dilmun and Magan correspond to present-day
Bahrain and the Oman peninsula of the Persian Gulf respectively. Through this
trade network, the Harappans exchanged semi-precious stone beads, ivory,
timber, gold dust, and probably copper with Mesopotamian traders. This
demonstrates that the Harappan civilisation was not isolated but was part of a
wider interregional trade network extending across the Persian Gulf into West
Asia.
19. Describe the growth of the
Egyptian civilisation along the Nile. The Egyptian civilisation is one of the earliest
civilisations of the world, known for its rich historical records. Egypt saw
the emergence of city-states around 3000 BCE as population increased and
resources became available. The river Nile watered the land along its banks,
and every summer the river flooded, leading to annual inundations that
deposited rich mud called "kemet," excellent for growing crops
(Egyptians called their land Kemet, meaning "the black," after this
river valley soil). About 5000 years ago, farmers discovered that by digging
ditches, they could divert water from the Nile into their fields and store
water in reservoirs for later use. By counting the days between Nile floods,
the Egyptians developed a calendar with three seasons of four months each,
based on the rising of Sirius (the Dog Star). The need to dig ditches and construct
dams required collective effort, which must have led to the growth of local
government and an administrative class, probably forming the earliest form of
local government in Egypt.
20. Explain the significance of
pharaohs, pyramids, and mummification in Egyptian civilisation. Over time, powerful individuals
called "Pharaohs" emerged as the rulers of Egypt. After their death,
pharaohs were buried deep underground, and a rectangular structure called a
"mastaba" was placed over the burial chamber; gradually, these
mastabas were placed one on top of the other to form a pyramid, such as the
Step Pyramid at Saqqara. The pyramids were built primarily because Egyptians
believed that each person had a "ka" (a spiritual double) that lived
on after death if the body was preserved through mummification. Mummification
involved removing the internal organs (except the heart) and drying the body
with natron; the body was then oiled, wrapped in linen strips, placed in a
coffin, and buried with rituals. These practices reflect the central importance
of religious belief in Egyptian society and its influence on architecture,
social organisation, and daily life.
21. Describe the social hierarchy of
ancient Egypt.
Ancient Egyptian society was organised as a strict social hierarchy, often
represented as a pyramid. At the top was the Pharaoh, the supreme ruler. Below
him were government officials, nobles, and priests, who held administrative and
religious power. Below them were free landholders, artisans, and merchants, who
carried out productive economic activities such as farming, crafts, and trade.
At the base of the pyramid were serfs and slaves, who performed the most
labour-intensive work. This hierarchy shows a clear division of labour and
power in Egyptian society, with wealth, authority, and religious privilege
concentrated at the top and physical labour concentrated at the bottom.
22. Explain how the Egyptian
hieroglyphic script was deciphered. Egypt was known to the Greeks and Romans, and Greek
writers like Herodotus visited and wrote about Egypt as early as the 5th
century BCE, but its hieroglyphic script remained a mystery for centuries. In
1799, Pierre Bouchard, a French army engineer, while repairing a fort in Egypt,
found a giant black stone covered in mysterious writing — the Rosetta Stone —
which contained three types of writing, including Greek. Since people could
still read Greek, this was a huge breakthrough, like having a bilingual
dictionary for a lost language. In 1822, a French linguist, Jean-François Champollion,
finally deciphered the Egyptian script using this stone. This decipherment
opened up a wealth of information about Egyptian history, religion, and daily
life, similar to how the Harappan script, if deciphered, could reveal much more
about the Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation.
23. Describe the role of literature
and libraries in ancient Egyptian society. Egyptian history is reconstructed
not only from monuments but also from papyrus, or old paper records made from
strips of the papyrus plant, criss-crossed, pressed, dried, and polished into
sheets. These documents preserve both stories and practical details, offering a
window into how Egyptians understood the world. Libraries, dating back to 2000
BCE, stored papyrus scrolls in labelled jars on shelves; one such jar contained
the oldest known version of the story of "Sindbad the Sailor." Short
stories from this period were diverse, including animal fables suggesting a
link to Aesop's Fables, tales of ghosts, miracles, and romances, and even the
oldest known form of "Cinderella." This shows that ancient Egyptian
culture had a rich literary tradition that likely influenced later world
literature.
24. Discuss the position of women in
ancient Egyptian society, using Cleopatra as an example. Egyptian women, in general, enjoyed
more rights than their Greek or Roman counterparts, as they could own property
and run businesses independently. This relatively higher status of women is
exemplified by Cleopatra (69–30 BCE), who was trained from childhood to rule and
became queen at the age of eighteen. This shows that in Egyptian society, women
— especially those of royal or elite status — could hold significant political
power and responsibility, unlike in many other ancient civilisations of the
time where women's roles were far more restricted.
25. Describe the emergence and
growth of the Chinese civilisation along its rivers. The Chinese civilisation flourished
along two rivers — the Huang He (Yellow River) and the Yangtze — which were
also centres of early Chinese Neolithic cultures dating to around 7000 BCE.
Around 2000 BCE, the introduction of copper/bronze metallurgy brought many
Neolithic settlements, especially those in the Yellow River basin, to the
threshold of the Bronze Age. However, it was only around 1600 BCE that urban
centres began to emerge, driven by expanding agricultural productivity and
advancements in metallurgy and craft production. These developments led to the
rise of the first Chinese Bronze Age territorial empire, showing a pattern
similar to other river-valley civilisations where agricultural surplus and
technological advancement together enabled urbanisation.
26. Describe the major dynasties of
ancient China and their significance. The history of China is organised into various
dynasties. The Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BCE) and the Zhou dynasty (1046–256
BCE) were two well-known dynasties of the Bronze Age; interestingly, the Zhou
rulers were considered both kings and priests, believed to be appointees of
heaven, but they could be dismissed if their people did not prosper. By 600
BCE, the use of iron became popular throughout China, marking the beginning of
the Chinese Iron Age. The name "China" probably comes from the Iron
Age Qin (Ch'in) dynasty (221–206 BCE), the first imperial dynasty of China,
credited with unifying the country. Another important Iron Age dynasty was the
Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), during which silk became a major item of external
trade, leading to the establishment of the famous Silk Route.
27. Explain the sources historians
use to understand ancient Chinese history. China has an abundance of
historical records because official historiographers recorded events over time.
However, the earliest source of information about China comes from "oracle
bones" — symbols made on pieces of animal bones and tortoise shells. These
bones were heated until they cracked, and interpretations were made based on
the patterns of the cracks; these oracles were often used to foretell the
future. Today, they tell us a great deal about the hopes, desires, and fears of
the early Chinese people. Additionally, the Chinese script is logographic, with
characters representing entire words or morphemes rather than sounds, providing
further insight into the culture and thinking of ancient China.
28. Describe the craft traditions of
ancient China, especially jade work and bronze metallurgy. Some craft items unique to Chinese
civilisation were jade objects and figurines, which were either ritual or
prestige objects; they probably played an important role in social transactions
since jade was not locally available and had to be obtained from outside China.
Chinese artisans skilfully carved jade into shapes such as fish and tied them
with cords — when struck, these jade pieces produced a clear, lasting musical sound,
reflecting the importance of music in Chinese culture and the high level of
craftsmanship achieved. Marble was also carved into ornaments in the form of
birds and animals and used as foundations for wooden pillars. Besides these,
the Chinese mastered bronze metallurgy to produce weapons, tools, and elaborate
ritual vessels, showing the sophistication of Chinese Bronze Age technology.
29. Discuss the Great Wall of China
— its purpose and construction history. The Great Wall of China was built over a period
stretching to about two thousand years. Initially, several separate walls were
built from 680 BCE onwards by the Zhou and other dynasties as protection
against the violent raids of nomadic tribes from the north. These separate
walls were later joined together to make a single, more effective defence
mechanism, particularly under the Qin dynasty, which unified China. The
expansion and repair of the wall continued for centuries, right up until the
17th century CE. The Great Wall stands as one of the most significant
architectural and military achievements of ancient and imperial China,
reflecting the scale of labour and organisation the Chinese state could
mobilise.
30. Explain the economic
developments of the Zhou and Han dynasties in China. A metal-based medium of exchange
appeared during the Zhou dynasty, and a full money economy developed by the 5th
century BCE, showing an increasingly sophisticated commercial system. China was
also the first country in the world to introduce paper currency, and the first
to develop civil services through public examinations, where officials were
chosen carefully after being examined in archery, horsemanship, calculations,
writing, and music. During the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), silk became a
major item of external trade, and the entire route on which it was traded came
to be known as the "Silk Route," connecting China to Central Asia,
India, and beyond, and facilitating cultural as well as commercial exchange.
31. Compare the social hierarchy of
Sumerian, Egyptian, and Chinese civilisations. In Sumerian society, kings ruled
from grand palaces, but temples and their high priests/priestesses held
enormous economic and social power, controlling agriculture and trade, while
common people lived in small brick houses and worked as farmers, craftsmen,
merchants, and traders. In Egypt, the Pharaoh stood at the top of a clear
social pyramid, followed by government officials, nobles, and priests; then
free landholders, artisans, and merchants; and finally serfs and slaves at the
base. In China, by 1500 BCE, Chinese Bronze Age society was highly stratified,
with the ruling class, nobles, and aristocrats at the top, followed by farmers
and labourers — the Zhou rulers additionally held both political and religious
authority as "appointees of heaven." Across all three civilisations,
we see a similar pattern: a ruling elite closely linked with religious
authority at the top, and agricultural/labouring classes at the bottom, though
the exact roles of priests, kings, and officials varied between societies.
32. Discuss the importance of
writing systems in the transition from prehistory to history across world
civilisations.
Writing is the key marker that separates "prehistory" from
"history." Before writing, our understanding of human life depends
almost entirely on archaeological evidence such as tools and fossils, making
dating and understanding people's thoughts very difficult. Once writing was
invented — cuneiform in Mesopotamia (~3300 BCE), hieroglyphics in Egypt, and
later Brahmi in India — societies could record precise dates, laws (like the
Code of Hammurabi), religious beliefs, trade transactions, and literature (such
as the Epic of Gilgamesh). This allowed historians to reconstruct much more
detailed, accurate, and nuanced histories of these civilisations compared to
the Harappan civilisation, whose script remains undeciphered, meaning much of
Harappan life is still understood only through material remains rather than
their own words.
33. "Bronze Age civilisations
developed independently but shared common features." Discuss. The Harappan, Mesopotamian,
Egyptian, and Chinese civilisations arose independently in different river
valleys, largely without direct contact (apart from Harappan-Mesopotamian
trade). Yet they shared striking common features: all flourished in fertile
river plains that provided water and fertile soil; all transitioned from
Neolithic farming communities into urban, city-based societies with planned
settlements; all developed some form of writing or symbolic record-keeping; all
created social hierarchies with rulers/priests at the top and labourers at the
bottom; all developed metallurgy (bronze/copper); and all built monumental
religious or administrative structures (ziggurats, pyramids, or fortified
cities). This shows how similar environmental opportunities and challenges led
different human societies, despite geographic separation, to arrive at broadly
similar civilisational solutions.
34. Explain how climatic change
shaped human history from the Palaeolithic to the Neolithic period. Climate played a crucial role in
shaping human development. During the Palaeolithic period, humans were largely
hunter-gatherers adapting to Ice Age conditions. Around 12,000 years ago,
Earth's climate became warmer, causing forests and grasslands to expand into
previously ice-covered areas; this created a wider variety of resources (small
game, fish, wild grains), triggering the first population explosion in human
history and the Mesolithic way of life based on hunting, gathering, and fishing
with microlithic tools. This warming trend eventually allowed humans to gain
enough familiarity with seasonal patterns and food resources to begin
deliberately cultivating plants and domesticating animals, leading to the
Neolithic Revolution — permanent settlements, agriculture, and eventually the
rise of civilisation. Thus, climatic change directly enabled the technological
and social transformations of human history.
35. Discuss the significance of
trade and craft production in the growth of early civilisations. Trade and craft production were
central to the growth and prosperity of early civilisations. In the Harappan
civilisation, pottery, copper work, shell work, and semi-precious stone bead
production (from sites like Harappa, Kunal, and Datrana) boosted the economy,
while standard weights facilitated efficient interregional trade, including
contact with Mesopotamia via Dilmun and Magan. In Mesopotamia, cuneiform
tablets recorded craft activities of potters, seal cutters, shipbuilders, and
carpenters, while trade brought materials like semi-precious stones, ivory, and
timber. In China, jade (not locally available) was obtained through trade for
use in ritual and prestige objects, and silk became a major export via the Silk
Route. These examples show that specialised craft production, combined with
organised trade networks, allowed early civilisations to accumulate wealth,
build administrative systems, and interact with distant cultures.
36. Compare the Harappan and
Egyptian approaches to water and river management. Both civilisations depended heavily
on their rivers, but their approaches to managing water differed based on local
conditions. In Egypt, the Nile's predictable annual flooding deposited fertile
"kemet" mud, and Egyptians dug ditches to divert water into fields
and reservoirs, later developing a calendar based on the flood cycle. In the
Harappan civilisation, water management was more varied and engineered: Early
Harappans built "gabarbands" (check dams) in Baluchistan, Kalibangan
shows ploughed fields indicating double-crop cultivation, and Dholavira had an
elaborate system of dams, canals, and deep interconnected water tanks to
conserve water within the settlement, while Lothal had a large burnt-brick
dockyard for maritime trade. This suggests that while Egypt relied more on the
river's natural flooding cycle, the Harappans developed more extensive
artificial water conservation and irrigation infrastructure suited to their
drier environment.
37. Explain the role of religion in
shaping the architecture and society of Mesopotamia and Egypt. In Mesopotamia, religion was
central to city life — each city built a grand ziggurat for its chief god,
around which the city grew, and all economic activities (agriculture, trade,
transport) were tied to temple authority; entry to the sacred temple was
restricted to priests and priestesses, who formed part of the ruling class,
reflecting a clear social hierarchy rooted in religious belief. In Egypt,
religious belief in the "ka" (spiritual double) and the afterlife
directly shaped monumental architecture — pharaohs were buried under mastabas,
which evolved into pyramids (like the Step Pyramid at Saqqara), and elaborate
mummification rituals were developed to preserve the body for the afterlife. In
both civilisations, religious belief was not separate from political and
economic life but was deeply intertwined with governance, architecture, and
social hierarchy.
38. Discuss the archaeological and
scientific methods used to study early human history. Early human history is studied
mainly through archaeological evidence, since written records did not exist.
Archaeologists excavate early human sites to uncover tools, bones, and other
objects left behind by ancestors; each find helps build a picture of how people
lived. To better understand these clues, archaeologists also experiment by
making and using replica tools themselves, helping them learn how early humans
created, used, and depended on these objects. Radiocarbon dating is used to
determine the age of sites (for example, establishing that the Pre-Harappan
phase at Bhirrana and Kunal began between 7000–5500 BCE). Fossil study helps
trace human evolution (as seen in the skulls of Homo habilis, erectus,
neanderthalensis, and sapiens), while the study of pottery styles, seals, and
settlement patterns helps reconstruct social, economic, and cultural life even
without deciphered writing, as in the case of the Harappan civilisation.
39. Explain the statement:
"Rivers were both an opportunity and a challenge for early
civilisations." Illustrate with examples. Rivers offered great opportunities:
they provided fertile soil (Nile's "kemet" mud in Egypt), water for
irrigation (Euphrates-Tigris in Mesopotamia, Indus-Sarasvatī for Harappans,
Huang He and Yangtze in China), and routes for trade and transport (Lothal's
dockyard, Mesopotamian riverine trade). However, rivers also posed challenges:
unpredictable or excessive flooding could destroy homes and crops, requiring
communities to build protective and management structures such as Sumerian dams
and canals, Harappan gabarbands, and Dholavira's water tanks — all of which
required significant collective labour and organisation. This dual nature of
rivers — as both a life-giving resource and a potential threat — pushed early
societies to develop cooperative labour systems, engineering skills, and
eventually administrative structures to manage water effectively, directly
contributing to the rise of organised civilisation.
40. "The story of early humans
is a story of continuous adaptation." Discuss this statement with
reference to the chapter.
The chapter shows that human history, from the earliest hominins to the rise of
civilisations, is fundamentally a story of continuous adaptation to changing
environments and challenges. Early hominins like Homo habilis and Homo erectus
adapted by developing tools (choppers, then handaxes and cleavers) to survive
and eventually migrate out of Africa. As climate warmed around 12,000 years
ago, humans adapted their subsistence strategies, shifting from big-game
hunting to fishing and gathering diverse resources using microlithic tools. The
Neolithic Revolution represents perhaps the greatest adaptation — humans
learned to control their food supply through farming and animal domestication
rather than depending entirely on nature. Finally, as farming communities grew
into complex societies along rivers, humans adapted socially and politically,
developing administration, religion, writing, trade networks, and technology
(from copper to bronze to iron) to manage larger populations and more complex
challenges. Thus, every stage covered in this chapter — biological evolution,
tool development, changing subsistence patterns, and the rise of civilisations
— reflects humanity's continuous ability to adapt to and shape its environment.
SECTION D: ASSERTION–REASON
QUESTIONS (30)
Instructions: Each question has an
Assertion (A) and a Reason (R). Choose the correct option:
- (a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct
explanation of A.
- (b) Both A and R are true, but R is NOT
the correct explanation of A.
- (c) A is true, but R is false.
- (d) A is false, but R is true.
1.
Assertion (A): The Harappan script has not
yet been deciphered.
Reason (R): No bilingual inscription
(like the Rosetta Stone) has been found to help scholars match the Harappan
script to a known language.
Answer: (a)
2.
Assertion (A): The period before writing is
understood mainly through archaeological evidence.
Reason (R): Written languages emerged at
the same time in all parts of the world.
Answer: (c)
3.
Assertion (A): Cuneiform and hieroglyphic
scripts mark the beginning of the historical period.
Reason (R): Both these scripts have been
deciphered, unlike the Harappan script.
Answer: (a)
4.
Assertion (A): Homo erectus was the first
hominin to leave Africa.
Reason (R): Homo erectus had stone tools
such as hand axes and cleavers that allowed successful migration and survival
outside Africa.
Answer: (a)
5.
Assertion (A): Homo sapiens evolved in
Africa around 300,000 years ago.
Reason (R): Homo sapiens is the only
human species that never left Africa.
Answer: (c)
6.
Assertion (A): Biological evolution and
cultural evolution are the same process.
Reason (R): Both refer to the
physical/genetic changes in early human ancestors.
Answer: (d)
7.
Assertion (A): Tools are sometimes called
"extra-corporal limbs."
Reason (R): Tools functioned as
extensions of the human body, helping people perform tasks they could not do
with their hands alone.
Answer: (a)
8.
Assertion (A): A fossil is formed almost
instantly after an organism dies.
Reason (R): Fossils form when remains are
buried under layers of earth and slowly turn into stone over thousands or
millions of years.
Answer: (d)
9.
Assertion (A): Homo habilis is called the
"handy man."
Reason (R): Homo habilis made chopper
stone tools and lived in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania and Kenya.
Answer: (a)
10.
Assertion (A): Homo neanderthalensis is the
only human species living today.
Reason (R): Homo neanderthalensis made
Middle Palaeolithic flake tools and lived in Europe and Southwest Asia.
Answer: (d)
11.
Assertion (A): The Palaeolithic period is
also known as the Old Stone Age.
Reason (R): "Palaeo" means old
and "lithic" means stone.
Answer: (a)
12.
Assertion (A): The Mesolithic period is
described as a transitional phase.
Reason (R): It lies between the
hunting-gathering lifestyle and the agriculture-based lifestyle.
Answer: (a)
13.
Assertion (A): The Mesolithic period saw the
first-ever population explosion in human history.
Reason (R): Earth's climate became
colder, causing forests and grasslands to shrink.
Answer: (c)
14.
Assertion (A): The Neolithic Revolution is
called a "revolution" rather than a simple change.
Reason (R): It brought a fundamental,
transformative shift from food-gathering to food-producing societies, changing
settlement patterns permanently.
Answer: (a)
15.
Assertion (A): Attirampakkam is the oldest
known human settlement site in India.
Reason (R): Attirampakkam is located in
Tamil Nadu and is dated to about 1.5–1.7 million years ago.
Answer: (a)
16.
Assertion (A): Bhimbetka is significant to
the study of the Mesolithic period.
Reason (R): Bhimbetka contains hundreds
of painted rock shelters with Mesolithic and earlier human occupation.
Answer: (a)
17.
Assertion (A): Mehrgarh is considered the
earliest agricultural village in the Indian subcontinent.
Reason (R): Its people cultivated wheat
and barley, raised animals, and built sun-dried brick houses and granaries as
early as 7000 BCE.
Answer: (a)
18.
Assertion (A): Mehrgarh's people became
known as "Chalcolithic people."
Reason (R): They were the first to make
objects out of iron.
Answer: (c)
19.
Assertion (A): The Pre-Harappan phase at
Bhirrana and Kunal began between 7000–5500 BCE.
Reason (R): These dates are based on
radio-carbon dating evidence at the sites.
Answer: (a)
20.
Assertion (A): The Early Harappan stage
shows cultural continuity in pottery, beads, and craft traditions.
Reason (R): By about 2500 BCE, regional
Chalcolithic styles evolved and became standardised features of the
Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation.
Answer: (a)
21.
Assertion (A): Kalibangan provides evidence
of double-crop cultivation among the Harappans.
Reason (R): Ploughed fields at Kalibangan
show only vertical furrows, with no evidence of any seasonal cropping pattern.
Answer: (c)
22.
Assertion (A): Dholavira shows an elaborate
water harvesting system.
Reason (R): Water from two nearby streams
was diverted through dams and canals into deep, interconnected tanks.
Answer: (a)
23.
Assertion (A): Long-distance trade in the
Harappan civilisation would have been severely disrupted without standard
weights.
Reason (R): Harappans followed a binary
multiple system for smaller weight units and multiples of ten for larger ones.
Answer: (a)
24.
Assertion (A): Mesopotamia is called
"the land in between."
Reason (R): Mesopotamia lies in the land
drained by the Euphrates and Tigris rivers.
Answer: (a)
25.
Assertion (A): The Sumerians were the
earliest to develop a city-based civilisation.
Reason (R): The Sumerians built ziggurats
and developed cuneiform writing around 3300 BCE.
Answer: (b)
26.
Assertion (A): Cuneiform has been
deciphered, but the Harappan script has not.
Reason (R): Cuneiform inscriptions are
far more numerous and were used across multiple contemporaneous languages,
aiding decipherment.
Answer: (b)
27.
Assertion (A): Meluhha, mentioned in
Akkadian cuneiform tablets, is identified with the Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation.
Reason (R): Dilmun and Magan, also
mentioned in the tablets, correspond to present-day Turkey and Iran.
Answer: (c)
28.
Assertion (A): The Code of Hammurabi served
as a foundational model for many future legal systems.
Reason (R): It was a compilation of rules
and regulations for civil and social conduct throughout the Babylonian empire.
Answer: (a)
29.
Assertion (A): The Babylonians lost their
prominence by the end of 1400 BCE.
Reason (R): This was due to repeated
attacks by the Hittites and other rising powers, along with environmental
degradation and internal problems.
Answer: (a)
30.
Assertion (A): The Rosetta Stone helped in
deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphics.
Reason (R): It contained the same text
written in three scripts, including Greek, which people could still read.
Answer: (a)