The Colonial Era in India

4. The Colonial Era in India

Detailed Notes (Pages 84–88)

🕰️ 1. Introduction — The Beginning of Colonialism in India

Before the British became India’s rulers, the Marathas had already weakened the Mughal Empire.

In the early 19th century, the Marathas themselves lost to the British.

Military power was not the only reason India became the “jewel in the Crown of the British Empire.”

To understand how that happened, we must first understand colonialism — what it means and how it spread.

🌍 2. What Is Colonialism?

Colonialism means when one country takes control of another region —
➤ sets up settlements,
➤ and imposes its political, economic, and cultural systems there.

It’s not new — it existed since the time of ancient empires (as early as the 1st millennium BCE).

Even in the 1st millennium CE, the spread of Christianity and Islam also involved colonising lands that converted to those religions.

📜 3. The Age of Colonialism (15th century onwards)

The “Age of Colonialism” usually refers to the period of European expansion from the 15th century onward.

Within a few centuries, European countries controlled large parts of Africa, Asia, the Americas, and Australia.

The main colonial powers were:
Spain, Portugal, Britain, France, and the Netherlands.

⚔️ 4. How Europe Expanded — Reasons and Motivations

Political rivalry among European nations — each wanted to build an empire and gain global power.

Economic interests — access to:

natural resources,

new markets for their goods,

new trade routes,

and sometimes simple plunder (looting wealth).

Religious motive — to convert people to Christianity.

Scientific curiosity — to explore new lands and understand the world’s geography and natural history.

📅 5. Important Timeline (from the textbook chart)

Year Event
1498 Vasco da Gama arrived at Calicut (Kozhikode) — first direct European sea link to India.
1560 The Inquisition was established in Goa by the Portuguese.
1612–1690 The English East India Company set up trading posts at Surat, Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta.
(Later timeline on page 85 continues till 1858, but we stop at 88 here.)

Year	Event
1498	Vasco da Gama arrived at Calicut (Kozhikode) — first direct European sea link to India.
1560	The Inquisition was established in Goa by the Portuguese.
1612–1690	The English East India Company set up trading posts at Surat, Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta.
(Later timeline on page 85 continues till 1858, but we stop at 88 here.)

💣 6. The Reality Behind Colonialism

Europeans said their aim was a “civilising mission” — to bring progress and education to “savage” people.

But the truth was:

Colonies lost independence.

Their resources were stolen.

Traditional lifestyles and cultures were destroyed.

Foreign values and systems were forced on them.

Although colonialism connected the world and spread technologies, the real benefits went to the colonisers, while colonised people suffered exploitation.

📉 7. Resistance and Decline of Colonialism

In many colonised places, people eventually rebelled and resisted foreign control.

After World War II (mid-20th century), colonialism collapsed quickly, as independence movements spread across the world.

Many Asian and African countries, including India, gained freedom around this time.

The rest of this chapter focuses on how colonialism worked specifically in India.

8. India Before the Europeans

India had long traded with Greeks and Romans — for spices, cotton, ivory, gems, sandalwood, teak, and wootz steel.

Up to the 16th century CE, India was one of the wealthiest nations — a global economic and cultural powerhouse.

According to historian-economist Angus Maddison, India contributed about one-fourth of the world’s GDP, equal to China’s share.

16th-century European travellers described India as flourishing, with:

strong manufacturing,

rich agriculture, and

vast trade networks.

This great wealth attracted European colonial powers.

⚓ 9. The Portuguese — First Europeans in India (1498 onwards)

Vasco da Gama reached Kappad near Kozhikode, Kerala in May 1498.

Though initially welcomed, his rough behaviour caused tension.

On his second voyage in 1502, he captured and killed Indian merchants and bombarded Calicut.

The Portuguese soon captured Goa in 1510, which became their capital in India.

They also set up trading posts on both coasts — Malabar and Coromandel.

🧾 The “Cartaz” System

Portuguese introduced a pass system (cartaz) — every ship sailing in the Arabian Sea had to buy a Portuguese permit.

Ships without this pass were seized.

This gave Portugal monopoly control over the spice trade between India and Europe for almost a century.

✝️ 10. Religious Atrocities — The Goa Inquisition (1560)

Alongside trade, the Portuguese forced religion on Indians.

The Inquisition (set up in Goa in 1560) punished Hindus, Muslims, Jews, and even Christians who secretly practised their old faiths.

Many were tortured, forced to convert, and temples were destroyed.

The Goa Inquisition lasted until 1812.

👑 11. Resistance Against the Portuguese — Rani Abbakka of Ullal

The port town of Ullal (southern Karnataka) was ruled by Rani Abbakka I, a brave queen and skilled leader.

In the late 16th century, the Portuguese tried repeatedly to conquer Ullal.

Rani Abbakka I formed alliances with neighbouring rulers and defeated them many times.

She was later captured and died in prison, still fighting.

Her successor, Rani Abbakka II, famously used coconut-shell fireballs to burn Portuguese ships.

Their courage is still celebrated in Yakshagana, a traditional dance-drama of Karnataka.

🧩 Summary of Pages 84–88

Topic Key Facts
Meaning of Colonialism One country controls another for wealth and power.
Age of Colonialism Started in the 15th century with European expansion.
Motives Political rivalry, wealth, religion, curiosity.
Impact Exploitation, loss of culture, global inequality.
India’s Status Rich and advanced; 25% of world GDP before Europeans.
Portuguese in India Vasco da Gama (1498), Goa (1510), Cartaz pass, Inquisition (1560–1812).
Resistance Rani Abbakka I & II of Ullal fought Portuguese bravely.

Topic	Key Facts
Meaning of Colonialism	One country controls another for wealth and power.
Age of Colonialism	Started in the 15th century with European expansion.
Motives	Political rivalry, wealth, religion, curiosity.
Impact	Exploitation, loss of culture, global inequality.
India’s Status	Rich and advanced; 25% of world GDP before Europeans.
Portuguese in India	Vasco da Gama (1498), Goa (1510), Cartaz pass, Inquisition (1560–1812).
Resistance	Rani Abbakka I & II of Ullal fought Portuguese bravely.

📘 The Colonial Era in India — Notes (Pages 89 – 94)

⚓ 1. The Dutch in India (Early 1600s – 1741)

The Dutch came to India soon after the Portuguese, in the early 17th century.

Their main goal was trade, especially in spices — they were less interested in spreading religion.

They formed the Dutch East India Company and set up trading posts (called factories) in many places.

🗺️ Major Dutch Centres in India

West Coast — Surat, Bharuch, and Cochin (Kochi)

East Coast — Nagapattinam and Masulipatnam (Machilipatnam)

Their strongest base was the Malabar region of Kerala, where they captured many Portuguese trading centres.

⚔️ The Battle of Colachel (1741)

The Dutch power declined after their defeat at the Battle of Colachel (1741).

The battle was fought between the Kingdom of Travancore, led by King Marthanda Varma, and the Dutch.

The Travancore army defeated the Dutch both on land and at sea — a rare example of an Asian kingdom defeating a European colonial power.

After this loss, the Dutch turned their attention to Southeast Asia and stopped trying to control India.

🇫🇷 2. The French in India (1668 – 1763)

The French East India Company (Compagnie des Indes Orientales) entered India later than the Dutch.

They first opened a post at Surat (1668), and later established their main base at Pondicherry (1674) — now Puducherry.

Their dream was to build a French Empire in India.

🧠 Leadership of Joseph François Dupleix (1742–1754)

Dupleix, the Governor-General of French India, was a clever and ambitious administrator.

He introduced ideas that were later copied by the British:

Training Indian soldiers (sepoys) in European warfare.

Indirect rule — controlling Indian rulers by supporting one side in local succession disputes.

Using puppet rulers to keep real power in French hands.

⚔️ The Carnatic Wars (1746 – 1763)

These were a series of wars between France and Britain for control over South India.

In 1746, Dupleix captured Madras (Chennai) from the British.

Despite early victories, the French ultimately lost to the British.

After the wars ended in 1763, France’s influence was reduced to Pondicherry and a few small towns.

⚱️ French Religious and Cultural Policy

The French usually did not interfere in Indians’ religion or society.

However, one exception was in 1748, when Dupleix, influenced by Jesuit priests and his wife, ordered the destruction of the Vedapurishwaran Temple in Pondicherry to show Christian dominance.

Apart from such incidents, the French mostly focused on trade, not religion.

🏰 3. The British Enter India (1600 – 1800s)

The British eventually became the most powerful colonial rulers in India, controlling it for almost two centuries.

Their rise from traders to rulers is one of history’s most striking transformations.

💼 4. From Traders to Rulers — The East India Company

The English East India Company was formed in 1600 and received a royal charter from Queen Elizabeth I.

The charter gave the Company special powers — even to raise a private army.

Initially, the Company pretended to be only a trading organisation, not an invading power.

During the 17th century, they quietly established trading posts at Surat, Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta.

Indian rulers welcomed them because India had a long tradition of foreign trade.

However, the Company had hidden imperial ambitions.

🎨 5. Activity: “The East Offering Its Riches to Britannia”

The painting shown at the start of the chapter was made for the East India Company’s London headquarters.

Students are asked to observe how it symbolises Britain’s exploitation of India’s wealth — the “East” presenting its riches to Britannia (the personification of Britain).

It represents how the British saw themselves as powerful rulers taking wealth from the East.

⚙️ 6. The Strategy of “Divide and Rule”

The Company grew powerful by playing Indian rulers against each other.

They offered military help to one ruler against another and interfered in internal disputes.

By doing this, they gained political influence without appearing as conquerors.

They also encouraged divisions among Indians — especially religious and regional rivalries — to prevent unity.

⚔️ 7. The Battle of Plassey (1757)

A key example of British cunning was the Battle of Plassey (1757) in Bengal.

Conflict arose between the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah, and the Company led by Robert Clive.

Clive secretly conspired with Mir Jafar, the Nawab’s commander-in-chief.

Mir Jafar promised to help the British in exchange for being made the new Nawab.

During the battle at Palashi (Plassey), Mir Jafar’s troops refused to fight, causing the Nawab’s defeat.

Even though Siraj-ud-Daulah was supported by some French forces, the British won easily.

The word “Mir Jafar” has since become a synonym in India for a traitor.

After Plassey, the Company began to act as king-makers, installing rulers they could control and gaining revenue-collecting rights in Bengal.

📜 8. The Doctrine of Lapse (19th century)

Introduced later by Governor General Lord Dalhousie.

Stated that if a ruler died without a biological son, his state would be annexed by the British.

Ignored the Indian tradition of adopting heirs.

Many kingdoms were taken this way — causing deep anger and contributing to the Revolt of 1857.

⚖️ 9. The Subsidiary Alliance System

Another British method of expansion was the Subsidiary Alliance.

Indian rulers had to:

keep British troops in their state and

pay for their maintenance;

conduct foreign relations only through the British.

In return, they would get “protection.”

In reality, they lost real power and independence.

The Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to accept this in 1798; many others soon followed.

This system allowed the British to control vast areas without directly ruling them — described as creating an “empire on the cheap.”

📍 10. The Impact of British Policies till 1798 – 1857

The “Divide and Rule,” “Doctrine of Lapse,” and “Subsidiary Alliance” together gave the British control over much of India by the mid-19th century.

Once a princely state joined their system, escaping was impossible — rebellion meant sure defeat.

These policies created deep resentment that later fuelled India’s first major uprising in 1857.

🧾 Summary of Pages 89 – 94

Theme Key Points & Dates
Dutch in India Came early 1600s; focused on spice trade; defeated by King Marthanda Varma in Battle of Colachel (1741).
French in India Bases at Surat (1668), Pondicherry (1674); Dupleix (1742–1754) led expansion; lost to British in Carnatic Wars (1746–1763).
British Entry East India Company chartered by Elizabeth I (1600); trading posts in Surat, Madras, Bombay, Calcutta.
Divide and Rule Played Indian rivals against each other.
Battle of Plassey (1757) Robert Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah with Mir Jafar’s betrayal.
Doctrine of Lapse Annexation without a natural male heir.
Subsidiary Alliance (1798 onward) Indian rulers kept British troops and lost real power.

Theme	Key Points & Dates
Dutch in India	Came early 1600s; focused on spice trade; defeated by King Marthanda Varma in Battle of Colachel (1741).
French in India	Bases at Surat (1668), Pondicherry (1674); Dupleix (1742–1754) led expansion; lost to British in Carnatic Wars (1746–1763).
British Entry	East India Company chartered by Elizabeth I (1600); trading posts in Surat, Madras, Bombay, Calcutta.
Divide and Rule	Played Indian rivals against each other.
Battle of Plassey (1757)	Robert Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah with Mir Jafar’s betrayal.
Doctrine of Lapse	Annexation without a natural male heir.
Subsidiary Alliance (1798 onward)	Indian rulers kept British troops and lost real power.

📘 The Colonial Era in India — Notes (Pages 95 to 102)

🌾 1. From Paradise to Hell — The Bengal Famine (1770 – 1772)

After the Battle of Plassey (1757), the East India Company gained the right to collect revenue in Bengal, Bihar and Odisha—India’s richest provinces.
Robert Clive called Bengal the “paradise of the earth.”
But Company officers only collected money, spending almost nothing on development.

💀 The Famine

In 1770–1772, two years of crop failure struck.
Despite this, the Company forced peasants to pay high cash taxes, ignoring harvest failures.
Result → one-third of Bengal’s people (≈ 10 million) died.
Officials even raised the land tax during the famine.
British officer W. W. Hunter later described the horror:

Farmers sold cattle, tools, and even children; they ate grass and leaves; cities filled with starving people.

🔁 Famines under British Rule

Similar disasters occurred again and again:
- Great Famine (1876 – 1878) — about 8 million deaths, mainly in the Deccan.
While Indians starved, the British exported grain to Britain—around one million tonnes of rice each year during the famine.

🚢 2. British Policy and “Free Market Cruelty”

British officials like Lord Lytton (Viceroy of India 1876-1880) believed in the “free market”—no government control of prices.
Lytton ordered that no interference be made to reduce food prices.
At the height of the famine in 1876, he even organised a lavish Delhi Durbar—a week-long feast for 68,000 officials and princes!
Famine reports later counted 12 – 20 major famines during British rule.
The total deaths were estimated between 50 million and 100 million—almost equal to the number of deaths in World War II.
Though the British opened a few famine relief camps, they were too few and under-supplied.
A Famine Commission (1878–1880) even declared that the poor had no right to demand relief.

🟠 Before colonial times, India had droughts and crop failures—but never famines on this gigantic scale.
British taxation and export policies made India poorer than ever.

💰 3. The Drain of India’s Wealth (18th – 20th century)

Economic exploitation was the base of British colonial rule.
Brooks Adams (1895), an American historian, wrote that after Plassey (1757), Bengal’s plunder began to arrive in London and helped trigger the Industrial Revolution (around 1760).
Another historian, Will Durant, called it “the stolen wealth of India.”

📚 Indian Voices of Criticism

Dadabhai Naoroji, a prominent Indian leader, wrote Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901), calculating how British policies drained India’s money.
Romesh Chunder Dutt, in The Economic History of India, supported Naoroji’s findings.
Together, they showed billions of pounds had been taken from India.
Modern economist Utsa Patnaik estimates that from 1765 to 1938, Britain extracted wealth worth US $ 45 trillion (in today’s value) — about 13 times Britain’s 2023 GDP!

💸 How the Drain Worked

Taxes collected from Indians paid for:
- Building railways and telegraphs,
- British officials’ salaries and luxury lifestyles,
- Wars fought by Britain elsewhere.
Thus, India’s money funded its own exploitation.

🧵 4. Decline of India’s Indigenous Industries

Before British control, India was famous for its manufacturing excellence:

Textiles – cotton, silk, wool, jute, coir, hemp.
Indian muslins, fine embroidered fabrics, and colourful cloth were admired worldwide.

📉 British Trade Policy Destroyed This Industry

Heavy import duties on Indian textiles entering Britain.
At the same time, India had to import British cloth with no tax.
British control of sea trade and exchange rates ruined Indian merchants.
Textile exports crashed; millions of skilled weavers lost their livelihood and returned to over-taxed farming.

In 1834, Governor-General William Bentinck remarked:
“The bones of the cotton weavers are bleaching the plains of India.”

Other industries—iron, steel, paper—also declined.
India’s share of world GDP dropped from about 25 % (before 1750) to around 5 % by 1947.

🏛️ 5. Dismantling Traditional Governance Systems

Before British rule:

Village panchayats managed disputes, irrigation, and community works.
Local kingdoms had well-organised administrations that fit local needs.

Charles Metcalfe (acting Governor-General, 1830s) admired this system:

“Village communities are little republics… They last where nothing else lasts.”

But the British replaced this with a centralised bureaucracy that served only tax collection and law and order, not public welfare.
Traditional decision-making disappeared.

They also introduced British laws and courts, ignoring customary laws.
The new courts were expensive, slow, and in a foreign language, alienating ordinary Indians.

🎓 6. Transformation of Indian Education — Creating “Brown Englishmen”

Before colonisation, India had a wide education network:

Pāṭhaśālās, Madrasas, Vihāras, and Gurukuls taught languages, arithmetic, and culture.
Reports say there were 100 000 – 150 000 village schools in Bengal and Bihar up to 1830, all run cheaply and effectively.

📜 Macaulay’s Minute on Education (1835)

Written by Thomas Babington Macaulay, a British historian and politician.
He openly admitted he knew neither Sanskrit nor Arabic, yet claimed:

“A single shelf of a good European library is worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia.”
Macaulay wanted to create a class of Indians who would be
“Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, opinions, morals and intellect.”
Thus began the English-medium, Western-style education system.

📚 Results and Impact

Traditional schools and learning in local languages declined.
English became the language of prestige.
The system produced a small English-educated elite who worked as clerks in colonial offices for low pay.
It widened the gap between educated elites and the masses, and disconnected people from their own heritage and knowledge systems.

💡 7. Meaning of Macaulay’s Policy

He believed European culture > Indian culture, reflecting the so-called “civilising mission.”
By controlling education, the British shaped Indian minds to admire Britain and accept colonial rule as “modern” and “necessary.”
His policy continues to influence Indian education even today.

🧾 Summary of Pages 95 – 102

Theme	Key Points & Dates
Bengal Famine	1770–1772; 10 million deaths; caused by harsh revenue demands.
Great Famine	1876–1878; ≈ 8 million deaths; Lord Lytton ignored crisis.
Drain of Wealth	From 1765 – 1938; ₹ 45 trillion (US value); explained by Naoroji & Dutt.
Decline of Industries	Heavy tax on Indian goods; fall of textiles; quote by Bentinck (1834).
Village Systems	Charles Metcalfe (1830s) called them “little republics”; British destroyed them.
Education Change	Macaulay’s Minute (1835); aim to create English-minded Indians.

📘 The Colonial Era in India — Notes (Pages 103–110)

🚂 1. Reshaping the Indian Economy — To Serve the Empire

The British changed India’s economy from being self-sufficient (producing its own food and goods) into a colonial economy.
India became a supplier of raw materials (like cotton, indigo, and jute) and a market for British manufactured goods.
This change was made to serve British industries, not Indian people.

🛤️ The Railway System

The railway network was one of the biggest colonial projects in India.
It helped to:
- Transport raw materials like coal, cotton, and jute from the interiors to ports for export.
- Distribute British goods to every corner of India.
- Move British soldiers quickly to crush revolts.
The routes were planned to help trade and the army — not local travel or farming needs.
Example: The Madras Railway (1860) — used to carry cotton and goods, not passengers.

💰 Who Paid for the Railways?

Railways were not a “gift.”
The construction cost came from Indian taxes, not from Britain’s treasury.
British companies earned huge profits, but the burden fell on Indians.
Therefore, Indians were funding their own exploitation once again.

⚡ 2. The Telegraph and Administration

The telegraph network (introduced in the mid-1800s) also served British interests.
- It helped administrators communicate faster.
- During revolts, it allowed the British to send troop orders instantly.
The cost of building and maintaining the telegraph was also paid by Indians.

💂 Administrative Costs

The huge British bureaucracy and army in India were also financed from Indian taxes.
Even the luxurious lifestyles of British officials in India were paid by Indians.
In short: India’s wealth built the British Empire.

💎 3. “The Jewel in the Crown” — and Early Resistance

India was so valuable that the British called it the “jewel in the crown of the British Empire.”
They claimed the empire was so vast that “the sun never sets on the British Empire.”
- This meant Britain had colonies all over the world — it was always daytime somewhere under British rule.

But Indians did not accept foreign domination quietly.
From the 1700s onward, there were repeated resistance movements — tribal, peasant, and religious — that challenged British power.

🗺️ 4. Map of the British Indian Empire (1909)

The map (in the textbook) shows:
- Red & Pink regions — directly under British rule.
- Yellow regions — princely states (ruled by Indian kings under British control).
- Black lines — railway routes.
By 1909, nearly all of India was under British influence — either directly or indirectly.

🔱 5. Early Resistance Movements (Before 1857)

(a) The Sannyasi–Fakir Rebellion (1770s–early 1800s)

After the Bengal famine of 1770, groups of Hindu sannyasis and Muslim fakirs rebelled against British restrictions.
They attacked British tax offices and treasuries.
The British labelled them as bandits and executed many.
This uprising inspired Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay’s novel Anandamath (1882), which contained the song “Vande Mātaram” — later India’s national song.

(b) Tribal Uprisings

Tribal people faced severe hardship under British rule:
- Their forests were taken away.
- They had to pay cash taxes instead of bartering goods.
- Moneylenders and outsiders grabbed their land.
- Many were forced to work as labourers or indentured workers.
- Some tribes were unfairly listed as “criminal tribes.”

Key Tribal Rebellions:

Kol Uprising (1831–1832) — in Chota Nagpur (Jharkhand), led by the Mundas and Oraons. They revolted against outsiders who had taken over their land.
Santhal Rebellion (1855–1856) — in Jharkhand, Bihar, and Bengal.
- Led by Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu.
- The Santhals fought against landlords and British officials.
- They declared their own rule and vowed to fight “till the last drop of blood.”
- The British brutally crushed the revolt — burning villages and killing thousands.
- The Santhal bravery inspired future tribal movements.

(c) Peasant Uprisings — The Indigo Revolt (1859–1862)

British planters forced peasants in Bengal to grow indigo (a blue dye plant) instead of food crops.
Peasants were paid very little and trapped in debt.
Those who refused to grow indigo were beaten, jailed, or had property destroyed.
The revolt spread across Bengal.
Educated Indians and newspapers supported the farmers, forcing the British to make minor reforms later.
Indigo dye was popular in Europe for blue cloth (like jeans today).

🟣 Think: India suffered so Europeans could wear blue clothes cheaply!

🔥 6. The Great Rebellion of 1857

(Also called the First War of Independence)

⚔️ Causes of the Revolt

Religious and cultural disrespect by the British.
Harsh tax and land policies ruined peasants and rulers.
Indian soldiers (sepoys) in the British army were unhappy with poor pay and discrimination.
Rumours spread that rifle cartridges were greased with cow and pig fat — insulting both Hindu and Muslim beliefs.

⚠️ The Spark

At Barrackpore (near Kolkata), sepoy Mangal Pandey attacked British officers in March 1857.
He was executed, spreading anger through the army.

📍 The Revolt Begins — Meerut and Delhi

In Meerut (Uttar Pradesh), sepoys rebelled, killed their officers, and marched to Delhi.
They declared the old Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar as their symbolic ruler.
The rebellion quickly spread across northern and central India — to Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Gwalior, and other cities.

💪 Indian Leaders of the Rebellion

Nana Saheb – led forces in Kanpur.
Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi – bravely fought the British to defend her kingdom.
Tantia Tope – a Maratha general who supported Rani Lakshmibai.
Begum Hazrat Mahal – led the resistance in Awadh (Lucknow) after her husband’s kingdom was annexed.

⚔️ Important Events

At Kanpur, British civilians were killed after being promised safe passage.
The British retaliated with mass killings and burning of villages.
Delhi was recaptured by the British in September 1857 after fierce street fighting.
The British carried out brutal punishments, executing thousands of rebels.

📉 Reasons for Failure

Rebels lacked unified leadership and coordination.
Many Indian rulers and soldiers remained loyal to the British.
The British had better weapons and organisation.

📜 Consequences

In 1858, the British Crown took direct control of India from the East India Company.
This began the period of the British Raj (1858–1947).
The British stopped expanding territory and focused on consolidating their power.
The Indian army was reorganised to prevent future rebellions (e.g., mixing soldiers of different regions and religions).

👑 7. Two Heroines of the 1857 Rebellion

⚔️ (a) Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi

Refused to give up her kingdom under the Doctrine of Lapse.
Joined forces with Tantia Tope and Nana Saheb.
Escaped from Jhansi, later captured Gwalior Fort and its treasury.
Killed in battle on 18 June 1858.
Even British officers praised her bravery:

“The best and bravest of the rebels.”

⚔️ (b) Begum Hazrat Mahal of Awadh

After the annexation of Awadh, she joined the 1857 rebellion.
Led the defence of Lucknow, refusing British offers of surrender.
Took refuge in Nepal after the revolt failed.
When Queen Victoria’s Proclamation (1858) promised fairness, Begum Hazrat Mahal warned Indians not to trust British words.

🧾 Summary of Pages 103 – 110

Theme	Key Points & Dates
Railways & Telegraphs	Built mainly for export and army use; paid for by Indian taxes.
“Jewel in the Crown”	India’s nickname — wealthiest colony of Britain.
Sannyasi–Fakir Rebellion	Bengal, after 1770 famine; inspired “Vande Mātaram.”
Kol Uprising	1831–1832 in Chota Nagpur (Jharkhand).
Santhal Rebellion	1855–1856; led by Sidhu & Kanhu Murmu.
Indigo Revolt	1859–1862; peasants forced to grow indigo.
Great Rebellion of 1857	Triggered by greased cartridges; leaders: Mangal Pandey, Lakshmibai, Nana Saheb, Begum Hazrat Mahal; ended Company rule.
Aftermath	1858 — British Crown takes direct control; start of British Raj.

📘 The Colonial Era in India — Notes (Pages 111 – 115)

🧭 1. Legacy of Colonial Rule — What It Left Behind

British rule lasted in India for nearly 200 years (1757–1947).
It ended in political independence but left deep marks on India’s economy, culture, and institutions.

⚖️ 2. Political Impact

(a) Centralised Administration

The British created a highly centralised system of government — all decisions came from the top.
This introduced:
- Modern bureaucracy (a professional civil service).
- A network of district collectors, police, and courts.
Although it was meant to control Indians, after independence it became the base of India’s modern government.

(b) Unity of India

The British built railways, telegraphs, postal systems, and roads, which connected distant parts of India.
Before this, India was divided into small regional kingdoms.
Ironically, the same tools made it easier for Indians to unite later in the freedom movement.

(c) Emergence of a Legal System

They introduced uniform laws and modern courts.
Indians began to learn about rights, equality, and justice — ideas that later became part of India’s Constitution.

📚 3. Social and Cultural Impact

(a) Western Education

Introduced after Macaulay’s Minute (1835), it spread English and Western ideas.
This created a new class of educated Indians who understood both Indian traditions and Western thought.
They began questioning:
- Religious superstitions,
- Caste discrimination, and
- The injustice of British rule.

(b) Rise of Social Reform Movements

Reformers like:
- Raja Ram Mohan Roy — founded Brahmo Samaj (1828); fought against sati, child marriage, and caste inequality; promoted women’s education.
- Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar — worked for widow remarriage and education of girls.
- Swami Dayananda Saraswati — founded Arya Samaj (1875) to revive Vedic values.
These movements laid the moral and intellectual foundation of Indian nationalism.

(c) Printing Press and Newspapers

The British introduced printing technology in India.
Indian newspapers like The Bengal Gazette (1780) and Kesari (1881) spread national awareness and political criticism.
Vernacular presses published ideas of freedom, unity, and reform.
Newspapers became the voice of the people against colonial injustice.

💰 4. Economic Impact

(a) Destruction of Self-Sufficiency

British trade policies destroyed India’s traditional economy.
Farmers had to grow cash crops (indigo, cotton, jute) instead of food grains.
This made India dependent on foreign imports and caused famines.

(b) Railways and Infrastructure

Built mainly for British benefit, but after independence, they became useful for India’s economic growth.
Many Indian engineers and entrepreneurs later modernised them for national development.

(c) Rise of New Cities

Cities like Bombay (Mumbai), Calcutta (Kolkata), and Madras (Chennai) grew rapidly under British rule.
They became centres of trade, education, and political activity.

🕊️ 5. The Growth of Nationalism

Educated Indians began to realise that British rule was exploitative.
They demanded:
- Equality in government jobs,
- Freedom of speech, and
- Representation in administration.
By the late 19th century, Indian leaders started organising politically.

📅 Key Developments

Indian National Congress (INC) founded in 1885 by A. O. Hume (a retired British officer) with Indian leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji and W. C. Bonnerjee.
The Congress initially demanded reforms and fair governance, but later led the freedom struggle.
Nationalism united people across regions, languages, and religions.

🌍 6. The Dual Nature of Colonial Impact

Positive Contributions (Indirect)	Negative Effects
Modern education and science	Economic exploitation
Introduction of democracy & law	Destruction of Indian industries
National unity through transport	Famines and poverty
Printing press & newspapers	Cultural inferiority complex
Foundation for future self-rule	Political repression

Thus, colonial rule was a curse disguised as a lesson — it destroyed India materially but helped awaken national consciousness.

🕰️ 7. Towards Freedom

By the 20th century, India had developed a new generation of leaders — Gandhi, Nehru, Tilak, and others — inspired by both Indian tradition and modern ideas.
They transformed the pain of colonialism into the spirit of freedom.
The story that began with Plassey (1757) ended with Independence (1947) — almost 200 years later.

🧾 Summary of Pages 111–115

Theme	Key Points
Political Impact	Centralised government, modern laws, and railways united India.
Social Impact	Western education; reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Vidyasagar promoted progress.
Economic Impact	Exploitation and famines; destruction of industries; rise of modern cities.
Cultural Impact	Printing, press, and English literature spread new ideas.
Nationalism	Congress founded (1885); Indians started demanding self-rule.
Dual Legacy	Exploitation + Enlightenment — India suffered but learned to fight for freedom.

*********

🧾 Answers to Questions and Activities (Page 115)

1. What is colonialism? Give three different definitions.

Definition 1 (General):
Colonialism is when one country controls and exploits another country or region politically, economically, and culturally for its own benefit.

Definition 2 (Historical):
During the 15th–20th centuries, European powers like Britain, France, Portugal, and the Netherlands set up colonies in Asia, Africa, and the Americas — forcing local people to accept foreign rule.

Definition 3 (Indian context):
In India, colonialism began when the British East India Company (1757) took control of Indian states and ruled for nearly 200 years (1757–1947), using Indian money and labour for British profit.

2. Did the colonial rulers really ‘civilise’ India? Why or why not?

No, their claim of a “civilising mission” was false and hypocritical.

They said they brought progress, but actually:
- Destroyed industries, took wealth, and caused famines.
- Forced Indians to grow cash crops (indigo, cotton) instead of food.
- Spread racial superiority ideas — calling Indians “uncivilised.”
Although modern education and railways came under British rule, these were mainly for British benefit, not Indian welfare.

✅ Conclusion:
Their goal was not to civilise but to control and exploit India’s wealth and people.

3. How was the British approach to colonising India different from earlier European powers like the Portuguese or the French?

Aspect	Portuguese / French	British
Goal	Trade and religion	Political and economic domination
Method	Captured ports and spread Christianity	Used “divide and rule”, alliances, and wars to expand
Power	Limited influence (Goa, Pondicherry)	Built a vast empire covering almost all India
Duration	Short-term traders	Long-term rulers (1757–1947)

✅ The British were more strategic — they slowly took control through the East India Company, used diplomacy, deceit, and force to rule all of India.

4. “Indians funded their own subjugation.” Explain in context of railways and telegraphs.

This means the money used to build railways, telegraphs, and British administration came from Indian taxes, not from Britain.

Indian farmers and workers paid heavy taxes that financed these projects.
Railways and telegraphs were built mainly to:
- Export raw materials to Britain.
- Move British soldiers quickly to crush revolts.
- Distribute British goods in India.
Indians paid for these systems but received no real benefit.

✅ In short, Indians unknowingly paid for the very systems that kept them under British control.

5. What does “divide and rule” mean? Give examples.

Meaning:
“Divide and rule” was a British policy of creating and exploiting differences among Indians (religious, regional, and political) to prevent unity.

Examples:

Supporting one Indian ruler against another (e.g., Mir Jafar against Siraj-ud-Daulah in the Battle of Plassey, 1757).
Favouring one religious community or caste over another.
Dividing Indian soldiers by region and religion after 1857 so they couldn’t unite again.

✅ Result — Indians remained divided and weak, making it easier for the British to rule.

6. Essay / Creative Activity – Impact of Colonialism on Agriculture

Topic: Colonialism and Indian Agriculture

Before British rule, Indian farmers grew food for local needs. Under colonial rule:

They were forced to grow cash crops like indigo, cotton, and jute for export.
Heavy land taxes made them poor and indebted.
Famines occurred frequently (e.g., Bengal Famine 1770, Great Famine 1876–78).

Even today, traces of colonial agriculture remain:

Farmers still depend on cash crops.
Rural poverty and debt continue.

🖋️ Short Poem (optional creative answer):

“Fields once golden with rice and grain,
Were dyed in indigo’s blue pain.
The farmer’s tears, the taxman’s gain —
Colonial chains still leave a stain.”

7. News Report – Rani Lakshmibai’s Resistance at Jhansi (1857)

📰 The Jhansi Herald – June 1858

Headline: Rani Lakshmibai Fights to the End, Defends Jhansi’s Honour!

Timeline:

1853: Jhansi annexed under Doctrine of Lapse.
1857: Rani joins the Great Rebellion after the sepoy mutiny.
March 1858: British forces surround Jhansi.
April 1858: Fierce battle — Rani escapes to Kalpi, joins Tantia Tope.
June 1858: Captures Gwalior Fort; dies heroically in battle on June 18, 1858.

Summary:
Rani Lakshmibai, riding her horse Badal, led her army bravely against the British. Her courage inspired freedom fighters across India. Even British officers called her “the bravest and best of all.”

8. Short Story – If India Was Never Colonised (300 words)

Title: The India That Could Have Been

If India had never been colonised, its history might have been very different.
The Marathas and Mysore kingdoms could have united to form a federal Indian empire by the early 1800s. Trade with Europe would have continued on equal terms, not under foreign control.

Indian inventors, scientists, and artists would have developed a modern industrial economy rooted in local skills — silk, metalwork, and medicine.
Without the “drain of wealth,” India’s GDP would have stayed among the world’s highest, as it was before 1750.

Education would have grown in Indian languages, keeping our culture strong while learning from global ideas.
Women reformers might have emerged earlier, and villages would have continued as self-governing republics.

By the 20th century, India could have become a peaceful, prosperous democracy — a blend of science and spirituality, leading Asia in progress.

Yet, even though colonised, India still rose again — proving that freedom and knowledge can never truly be crushed.

9. Role-Play – Dialogue Between Dadabhai Naoroji and a British Official

Scene: London, 1895

Naoroji: “Sir, I have calculated the economic drain from India — billions of rupees flow yearly to Britain. India grows poorer while England prospers.”
British Official: “But we’ve given India railways, education, and law.”
Naoroji: “True, but who benefits from them? The cost is paid by Indians; the profit goes to you. We want justice, not charity.”
Official: “You speak of independence?”
Naoroji: “I speak of fairness. Without equality, your empire will stand on sand.”

10. Local Resistance Movement Report (Example – Choose one from your state)

Example: The Santhal Rebellion (Jharkhand, 1855–56)

Point	Details
Trigger	Exploitation by moneylenders and loss of land due to British land policies.
Leaders	Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu.
Demands	End of British taxes, return of tribal lands, justice for exploitation.
British Response	Rebellion crushed with brutal force; thousands killed.
Memory Today	Remembered as “Hul Diwas” on 30 June every year; statues of Sidhu-Kanhu in Jharkhand honour their bravery.